Paradoxes and patriarchy: a legal reading of She-Hulk

Abstract

From Savage to Sensational, from lawyer to hulking beast, from advocate to Avenger and from independent woman to hyper-sexualised feminista – She-Hulk provides a case study in what occurs when ‘great power’ meets the ‘great responsibility’ of the legal professional. This article seeks to fill a gap in the fledgling field of Law and Comics via an analysis of She-Hulk, revealing a character defined by binaries, constructed through real world and imagined patriarchal forces, whose superpowers do not make her immune from the struggles faced by the female voice within the legal system. Yet She-Hulk offers a solution to this exclusion – the realm of the abject, the monstrous, splintering the law to protect her client's interests. She-Hulk reveals that superhero powers are needed to overcome the challenges of feminist lawyering.

ORCID

Dale Mitchell http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8712-9186

Notes

¹Harvard Law School is the school-of-choice for fictional lawyers. MacNeil proposes this is due in-part to Harvard's reputation for using the ‘veritable theatre of pedagogic pain known as the “Socratic method”’. MacNeil (2007), p 98.

²Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 2.

³Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 2.

⁴Jennifer's father notes that his wife's murder led to him and Jennifer to ‘retreat into an obsession for law and justice!’: David Kraft (1982) ‘Transmutations’ Savage She-Hulk 25, Marvel Comics, p 12.

⁵David Kraft (1980) ‘The She-Hulk Strikes Back!’, Savage She-Hulk 4, Marvel Comics, p 6.

⁶Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, February 1979; She-Hulk appeared in Stan Lee and David Kraft (1979–80) The Savage She-Hulk 1–25, Marvel Comics; before becoming a series regular in both Jim Shooter et al (1982–84; 1987–88) The Avengers 221–249; 278–297, July 1982–November 1984, April 1987–November 1988, Marvel Comics and John Byrne et al (1983–87) Fantastic Four 254–300, Marvel Comics; before returning to her solo roots in John Byrne et al (1989–94) Sensational She-Hulk 1–60, Marvel Comics; then returning to Kurt Busiek et al (1998–2004) Avengers 1–84, Marvel Comics and Joe Quesada et al (2001–02) Fantastic Four 41–50, Marvel Comics; before re-launching her solo career in Dan Slott et al (2005–09) She-Hulk 1–38, Marvel Comics; Charles Soule et al (2014–15) She-Hulk 1–12, Marvel Comics. She-Hulk has also played a key role in important feature events within the Marvel Universe, particularly Mark Millar (2006–07) Civil War 1–7, Marvel Comics and Greg Pak (2007–08) World War Hulk 1–5, Marvel Comics.

⁷Chase (1986); Russell (1991); MacNeil (2007); Sharp and Leiboff (2015); Hilyerd (2009), p 181; see in addition: Friedman (1989); Redhead (1995); Sherwin (2002); Kamir (2005), p 264.

⁸Hereafter referred to as comics.

⁹Bainbridge (2007); DiPaolo (2011); James (2007); see also the variety of articles published within this special edition of Law Text Culture: Gomez Romero and Dahlman (2012).

¹⁰Butler (2011); Peters (2007).

¹¹Bainbridge (2007); Reyns and Henson (2010).

¹²Taslitz (2004); Kort-Butler (2013); Sharp (2012).

¹³Giddens (2012).

¹⁴Stan Lee and David Kraft (1979–80) The Savage She-Hulk 1–25, Marvel Comics.

¹⁵Epstein (2002), pp 118–120.

¹⁶David Kraft (1980) ‘The She-Hulk Strikes Back!’, Savage She-Hulk 4, Marvel Comics, p 6.

¹⁷David Kraft (1979) ‘Deathrace!!’ Savage She-Hulk 2, Marvel Comics, p 18.

¹⁸Eg: The cover of Sensational She-Hulk 34 parodies the controversial Vanity Fair cover featuring Demi Moore: John Byrne (1991) ‘Who Was That Zombie I Saw You With … ?’ Sensational She-Hulk 34, Marvel Comics.

¹⁹John Byrne et al (1989–94) Sensational She-Hulk 1–60, Marvel Comics.

²⁰John Byrne (1992) ‘One Potato, Two Potato’ Sensational She-Hulk 40, Marvel Comics.

²¹Jim Shooter et al (1982–84; 1987–88) The Avengers 221–249; 278–297, July 1982–November 1984, April 1987–November 1988; Marvel Comics and John Byrne et al (1983–87) Fantastic Four 254–300, Marvel Comics; Mark Millar (2006–07) Civil War 1–7, Marvel Comics; Greg Pak (2007–08) World War Hulk 1–5, Marvel Comics.

²²Dan Slott et al (2005–09) She-Hulk 1–38, Marvel Comics; Charles Soule et al (2014–15) She-Hulk 1–12, Marvel Comics.

²³Joe Quesada (2008) ‘Dark Art: Part 2’ She-Hulk 29, Marvel Comics.

²⁴Joe Quesada (2008) ‘The Lion of Olympus’ She-Hulk 30, Marvel Comics.

²⁵David Kraft (1981) ‘Reason and Rage’ Savage She-Hulk 12, Marvel Comics.

²⁶David Kraft (1982) ‘Transmutations’ Savage She-Hulk 25, Marvel Comics; David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’, Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics.

²⁷John Byrne (1985) ‘Sensational She-Hulk’ Marvel Graphic Novel 18, Marvel Comics; Tom DeFalco (1992) ‘Plastic Snow and Mistletoe’ Sensational She-Hulk 36, Marvel Comics; Joe Quesada (2004) ‘Class Action Comics!’ She-Hulk 2, Marvel Comics.

²⁸Azel Alonso (2015) She-Hulk Vol 6, Marvel Comics, p 88; Tom DeFalco (1993) ‘Uh-Oh’ Sensational She-Hulk 48, Marvel Comics; Tom DeFalco (1993) ‘Family Business’ Sensational She-Hulk 57, Marvel Comics.

²⁹Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 2.

³⁰Following a weapons experiment gone wrong, Bruce suffered a mutation fuelled by gamma-radiation, creating ‘The Hulk’. Banner's transformations into the Hulk are fuelled by anger, with the strength, size and uncontrollable-nature of the Hulk causing extensive damage and causing the Hulk to be seen as an enemy of the state: Stan Lee (1962) ‘The Strangest Man Alive!’ The Incredible Hulk 1, Marvel Comics; Stan Lee (1964) ‘There Is a Fire Down Below!’ The Avengers 3, Marvel Comics; The Incredible Hulk can also be understood by reference to two of the characters which inspired its creation, Frankenstein's Monster and Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde: Stan Lee (1974), p 75.

³¹Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 5.

³²Nicholas Trask was also responsible for the death of Jen's mother; Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 6.

³³Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 8.

³⁴Wittig (2012), p 104; Fausto-Sterling (1985).

³⁵Using male characters as a basis for feminine heroes is not unusual within comics. Examples include Batwoman, Spider-Girl, She-Thing and Supergirl: Edmond Hamilton (1956) ‘The Batwoman’ Detective Comics 233, DC Comics; Tom DeFalco (1998) ‘Spider-Girl’ Spider-Girl 1, Marvel Comics; Mike Carlin and Jim Shooter (1985) ‘The Thing and the Thunderiders’ The Thing 27, Marvel Comics; Otto Binder (1958) ‘The Three Magic Wishes’ Superman 123, DC Comics.

³⁶Martino and Kehler (2007); Frohard-Dourlent (2012); Robinson (2004); Madrid (2013).

³⁷Howe (2012), p 220.

³⁸Howe (2012), p 220.

³⁹Howe (2012), p 221.

⁴⁰Foreman and Arthur-Kelly (2008), p 111.

⁴¹Shah (2006), p 200.

⁴²Shah (2006), p 200.

⁴³Willis (1984) p 96; Mackinnon (1989a).

⁴⁴Heywood (2007), p 221.

⁴⁵Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 11.

⁴⁶Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 12.

⁴⁷Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 12.

⁴⁸Stan Lee (1979) ‘The She-Hulk Lives!’ Savage She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics, p 12.

⁴⁹‘One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman’ is a phrase coined by Simone de Beauvoir in contrasting the distinction of sex from the socially constructed gender: De Beauvoir (1973), p 301.

⁵⁰The term ‘woman’ itself is defined by relation to man. ‘The world is man's world. Man is the word of the world’: Leclerc (1987), p 58.

⁵¹ Australian Pocket Oxford Dictionary (2013), p 557.

⁵² Australian Pocket Oxford Dictionary (2013), p 974.

⁵³Banner struggles to maintain control as the Hulk, or when this metamorphosis occurs: Stan Lee (1962) ‘The Coming of the Hulk’ Incredible Hulk 1, Marvel Comics.

⁵⁴ Australian Pocket Oxford Dictionary (2013), p 998.

⁵⁵Mulvey (1975), p 11; Shrage (1993), p 143.

⁵⁶Tasker (2004), pp 272–273; Davis (2013), p 33.

⁵⁷Men have been the main audience for comics from the 1970s through to the mid-1990s. It is difficult to measure what sex is the more avid comic book reader, as most statistics are based the comic book purchaser. The dominance of men as comic book consumers, within comic book stores, and a perceived notion that comics were ‘not feminine’ led to publishers concluding that males were the dominant readership: Gabilliet (2010), pp 209–210; D'Amore (2012), p 1227; Wolk (2008).

⁵⁸Razorback details to the court how She-Hulk used her breasts to destroy an asteroid which killed a group of enemies. ‘Ya think any other supergal's rack coulda’ done that?!’ he explains to the court, rounding up his sexist and misogynistic diatribe with the remark ‘That's what makes She-Hulk special!’. Naturally, the courtroom of superheroes erupted in laughter, because after all, that is all She-Hulk is, right? – A body to be exposed and posed; Dan Slott (2005) ‘Time of her Life’ She-Hulk 5, Marvel Comics, p 22.

⁵⁹Shigematsu (1999).

⁶⁰For a discussion on this matter, see Madrid (2013), pp 245–268; Chute (2010), p 3; Sarracino and Scott (2008), p 61.

⁶¹John Byrne (1992) ‘Date Worse than Death’ Sensational She-Hulk 39, Marvel Comics, p 23.

⁶²CCA is the Comics Code Authority, a self-regulatory body for comics published within the United States of America.

⁶³MacKinnon (1989b).

⁶⁴McGrath (2007).

⁶⁵Fredrickson and Roberts (1997), p 173.

⁶⁶Haslam et al (2007), p 410; see also Goldenberg and Roberts (2004); Heflick and Goldenberg (2009).

⁶⁷Shrage (1993), p 144.

⁶⁸Thompson (2001), p 40.

⁶⁹Freud (1925), p 252.

⁷⁰Freud (1905), p 216.

⁷¹Freud (1925), p 252.

⁷²Freud (1925), p 252.

⁷³Freud (1925), p 252.

⁷⁴Freud (1927), p 155.

⁷⁵Freud (1927), p 154.

⁷⁶Creed (1993), p 116.

⁷⁷Creed (1993), pp 115–116.

⁷⁸Creed (1993), p 116.

⁷⁹David Kraft (1981) ‘The Day the Planet Screamed!’ Savage She-Hulk 24, Marvel Comics, p 23.

⁸⁰Steve Gerber (1990) ‘The Dentist in the Iron Mask!’ Sensational She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 19.

⁸¹Dant (1996), p 509.

⁸²A fetish technique commonly used in soft-porn magazines: Creed (1993), p 116.

⁸³Key to this infection of the masculine is the continued failure to appreciate the feminist standpoint. Hekman describes Harding's feminist standpoint as a ‘staple’ of feminist theory: Hekman (1997), p 341.

⁸⁴White (1987), p 1.

⁸⁵Neda Ulday (2012) ‘Airbender’ Creators reclaim their world in ‘Korra’ NPR: National Public Radio, http://www.npr.org/2012/04/13/150566153/airbender-creators-reclaim-their-world-in-korra, 13 April 2012.

⁸⁶Glascock and Preston-Schreck (2004); Robinson (2004).

⁸⁷Robinson (2004), p 258.

⁸⁸Jim Shooter and Steven Grant (1982) ‘A Gathering of Evil’ The Avengers 222, Marvel Comics, p 2.

⁸⁹Jim Shooter and Steven Grant (1982) ‘A Gathering of Evil’ The Avengers 222, Marvel Comics, p 12.

⁹⁰Jim Shooter and Steven Grant (1982) ‘A Gathering of Evil’ The Avengers 222, Marvel Comics, p 12.

⁹¹Jim Shooter and Steven Grant (1982) ‘A Gathering of Evil’ The Avengers 222, Marvel Comics, p 12; Madrid (2013), p 256.

⁹²Van Slooten (2005); Arthurs (2003).

⁹³Butler and Desai (2008), p 12.

⁹⁴Butler (1993), pp 23–24.

⁹⁵Robinson (2004), p 256.

⁹⁶John Byrne (1985) ‘The Naked Truth’ Fantastic Four 275, Marvel Comics.

⁹⁷John Byrne (1993) ‘To Die and Live in L.A.!’ Sensational She-Hulk 54, Marvel Comics.

⁹⁸Joe Quesada (2007) ‘Planet Without a Hulk’ She-Hulk 17, Marvel Comics.

⁹⁹Steve Gerber (1990) ‘The Dentist in the Iron Mask!’ Sensational She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics.

¹⁰⁰Joe Quesada (2004) ‘The Trial of Juggernaut’ Uncanny X-Men 435, Marvel Comics.

¹⁰¹As seen in Legal Practitioners’ Conduct Board v Morel (2004) SASR 401; Dal Pont (2013), pp 232–236.

¹⁰²Madrid (2013), p 260.

¹⁰³Dan Slott (2004) ‘Single Green Female’, She-Hulk 1, Marvel Comics.

¹⁰⁴Dan Slott (2007) ‘Trial of the Leader’, She-Hulk 19, Marvel Comics, pp 14–15.

¹⁰⁵Smart (1995), p 9.

¹⁰⁶Rhode (2003), pp 4–5; Menkel-Meadow (1985).

¹⁰⁷Dan Slott (2007) ‘Planet Without a Hulk’ She-Hulk 17, Marvel Comics, p 16.

¹⁰⁸Men's sexuality is seen as more ‘natural, acceptable and uncontrollable’. These gendered approaches exhibit themselves within rape myths and stereotypes. This double standard means men who succeed in having sexual relations with multiple women are ‘seen as just that – successful’, whilst women are socially denigrated and known as a ‘skank’: Miller and Marshall (1987); Barash and Lipton (2001), p 145; Milhausen and Herold (2001), p 75; See also Marks and Fraley (2005).

¹⁰⁹Waggett (1989), pp 10–11.

¹¹⁰Heywood (2007), p 242; Heywood (2002), p 245.

¹¹¹Aitchison (2003), p 24.

¹¹²A paradox that is also recognised in To Kill a Mockingbird’s Atticus Finch, who committed himself to a racist legal system through his devotion to the Constitution: Shaffer (1981), p 224.

¹¹³S.H.I.E.L.D. is the Strategic Hazard Intervention Espionage Logistics Directorate, a government-run organisation made up of both superheroes and special forces soldiers tasked with protecting Earth from the threats of supervillains and other-worldly supernaturals: Sanderson (2007), p 62; For an introduction to S.H.I.E.L.D., see Jonathan Hickman (2010–12) S.H.I.E.L.D 1-11, Marvel Comics.

¹¹⁴Nash (2008), p 2.

¹¹⁵Crenshaw (1989), p 134; for a more recent analysis, see Pheonix and Pattynama (2006).

¹¹⁶Fiorenza and Nasrallah (2009), p 226.

¹¹⁷Fiorenza and Nasrallah (2009), p 226.

¹¹⁸Crenshaw (1991), p 1244.

¹¹⁹Smedley (1998), p 692.

¹²⁰See Housel and Wisnewski (2009).

¹²¹Zingheim (2010), p 29; Baron (2003), p 52; Simon (1999).

¹²² X-Men is therefore a liberal comic, ‘stressing cooperation among individuals and minorities rather than conflict, moderation in politics rather than extremism, and the right of each American to social recognition and economic opportunity’: Mondello (1976), p 238.

¹²³Trushell (2004), p 151.

¹²⁴As can be seen in telepaths; see X-Men mutants Charles Xavier (Professor X) and Jean Grey.

¹²⁵Zingheim (2010), p 33.

¹²⁶Singer (2002), p 112.

¹²⁷Reynolds (1992), p 16.

¹²⁸David Kraft (1982) ‘Transmutations’ Savage She-Hulk 25, Marvel Comics, p 38.

¹²⁹Creed (1993).

¹³⁰Creed (1986), p 44.

¹³¹Creed (1993), p 13.

¹³²Creed (1986), p 47.

¹³³Kristeva (1982), p 8

¹³⁴Kristeva (1982), pp 1–2.

¹³⁵Kristeva (1982), p 4.

¹³⁶Kristeva (1982), p 4; Becker-Leckrone (2005), p 33.

¹³⁷Kristeva (1982), p 2; ‘For that which threatens to destroy life also helps to define life’: Creed (1986), p 46.

¹³⁸Creed (1986), p 48.

¹³⁹Danic and Lefrère (2008), p 1029.

¹⁴⁰Kristeva (1982), p 71; Creed (1986), p 52.

¹⁴¹Kristeva (1982), p 4.

¹⁴²Creed (1993), p 48.

¹⁴³Crofts (2012), p 78.

¹⁴⁴For example: threatening witnesses: David Kraft (1979) ‘Deathrace!!’ Savage She-Hulk 2, Marvel Comics; destroying hazardous microwave towers despite legal body ruling against her client's application to have it removed: David Kraft (1981) ‘The Zapping of the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 16, Marvel Comics.

¹⁴⁵MacNeil (2012), p 88.

¹⁴⁶A monster struggling to be accepted by law and society.

¹⁴⁷‘The process of abjection helped construct what it sought to exclude’: Roberts (2009), p 16.

¹⁴⁸A lawyer holds a duty to the court beyond conduct during litigation, including a duty to the administration of justice: r 3, Australian Solicitors Conduct Rules (2012), r 5, Barristers Conduct Rules (2011); see also Cahill v Law Society of New South Wales (1988) 12 NSWLR 1; Rondel v Worsley [1969] 1 AC 191; Richardson v R (1974) 131 CLR 116.

¹⁴⁹Finley (1989), p 886; Rifkin (1980).

¹⁵⁰David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’, Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 2.

¹⁵¹David Kraft (1979) ‘Deathrace!!’ Savage She-Hulk 2, Marvel Comics, p 18.

¹⁵²David Kraft (1980) ‘Enter: Iron Man!’ Savage She-Hulk 6, Marvel Comics, p 12.

¹⁵³David Kraft (1980) ‘The Power of the Word!’ Savage She-Hulk 9, Marvel Comics, p 5.

¹⁵⁴David Kraft (1980) ‘Crawler in the Caverns of Doom’ Savage She-Hulk 5, Marvel Comics, p 4.

¹⁵⁵ Savage She-Hulk was published from February 1979 to February 1981.

¹⁵⁶Pearson and Sachs (1980), p 408; see also Leiper (2006); Brockman (2001); Thornton (1996).

¹⁵⁷Ellis (2009), p 128.

¹⁵⁸See Menkel-Meadow (1999), p 907; Sarat (1998); Uphoff (2004).

¹⁵⁹David Kraft (1980) ‘The Power of the Word!’ Savage She-Hulk 9, Marvel Comics, p 8.

¹⁶⁰David Kraft (1980) ‘The Power of the Word!’ Savage She-Hulk 9, Marvel Comics, p 9.

¹⁶¹David Kraft (1980) ‘The Power of the Word!’ Savage She-Hulk 9, Marvel Comics, p 9.

¹⁶²Felstiner (2000), p 76.

¹⁶³Connell (1995), pp 36–37; Hunter (2003), p 106.

¹⁶⁴Smart (1989), p 86.

¹⁶⁵Roach Anleu (1993), pp 196–197.

¹⁶⁶Gilligan (2008); see also Gilligan and Attanucci (1988).

¹⁶⁷Malleson (2003), p 3.

¹⁶⁸Law School also plays a role in this normalisation: see Schultz (2003).

¹⁶⁹Mather et al (2001), p 8.

¹⁷⁰Thornton (1996), p 8; Hunter (2003), p 106.

¹⁷¹These qualities have continually been shown to be exhibited by female legal practitioners: Hunter (2003), p 106; Connell (1995), p 181; Schultz (2003), pp 301–306; Sommerlad (2003); Silius (2003).

¹⁷²A patriarchal system requires women to adapt to play a role within it. Within these masculinised industries, ‘workers can be required to do gender displays according to scripts that are “masculine”’ Sommerlad (2006); p 177. See Sommerlad and Sanderson (1998); Sommerlad (2002); Hall (1993).

¹⁷³Gilligan (1982); Noddings (1984); West (1988); Sevenhuijsen (1998). For an overview of the development of the ethics of care, see Hunter (2013).

¹⁷⁴Hunter (2013), p 22.

¹⁷⁵Hunter (2013), p 22; Sevenhuijsen (1998); Stewart (2011).

¹⁷⁶Sevenhuijsen (1998), p 83.

¹⁷⁷Foucault (2004), p 55.

¹⁷⁸Waldby (2004), pp 36–37.

¹⁷⁹Waldby (2004), pp 36–37.

¹⁸⁰Spinoza saw God in all things, even disease, famine and filth: Deleuze (1988), p 26.

¹⁸¹Thanem and Wallenberg (2015), p 434.

¹⁸²This theory can be applied to individual or organisational ethics: Thanem and Wallenberg (2015), p 433.

¹⁸³Cook (2007), pp 96, 114; ‘We can only think of how to keep from dying, and our whole life is a death worship’: Deleuze (1988), p 26.

¹⁸⁴Thanem and Wallenberg (2015), p 440; inaction is bad, action is celebrated: Smith (2007), p 67.

¹⁸⁵Thanem and Wallenberg (2015), pp 441–44.

¹⁸⁶Corporate interest being key to even the fictitious lawyer: Travis and Tranter (2014), pp 28–31.

¹⁸⁷MacKinnon (1983), p 644.

¹⁸⁸Smart (1995), p 213.

¹⁸⁹This normalisation is a product of both binaries and patriarchal power structures; see Stan Lee and David Kraft (1979–1980) The Savage She-Hulk 1-17, Marvel Comics, for a general display of Buck's ignorance.

¹⁹⁰The Australian experience clearly demonstrates this. Women only holding 17.3 per cent of equity partnership positions nationally, with the failure to promote women influenced by issues surrounding variable working arrangements and nepotism: Nicola Berkovic (2014) ‘Women Partners Stalemate’, The Australian, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/business/legal-affairs/women-partners-stalemate/story-e6frg97x-1226968127499, 27 June 2014; Lyndall Crisp (2013) ‘Slow Path to Senior Ranks for Women’, The Australian, http://www.theaustralian.com.au/archive/business/slow-path-to-senior-ranks-for-women/story-e6frg97x-1226674507364#, 5 July 2013.

¹⁹¹See Freeman (1980); Collier (1995).

¹⁹² The role of the lawyer may serve as a barrier to the swift application of justice. As in Dredd, She-Hulk at times applies the law to circumvent the courts and provide swift justice. Like Dredd, She-Hulk is the ‘manifestation of embodied justice’. Unlike Dredd, however, She-Hulk continues to operate within a traditional legal system. She embodies justice by becoming the monstrous advocate. See Travis and Tranter (2014), pp 25–27.

¹⁹³Leiboff and Thomas (2009), p 296.

¹⁹⁴John Austin (1832), pp 13–14.

¹⁹⁵Leiboff and Thomas (2009), p 255.

¹⁹⁶David Kraft (1981) ‘When Favors Come Due’ Savage She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 22.

¹⁹⁷Alexander (1999), p 531.

¹⁹⁸Leiboff and Thomas (2009), p 256.

¹⁹⁹ cf European realist theories which are of a more philosophical nature: Leiter (2005), p 50; Fuller (193 4), pp 430, 438.

²⁰⁰ Leiter (2005), p 51.

²⁰¹ Leiter (2005), p 51; ‘Mechanical jurisprudence’ was phrase used by Roscoe Pound in advocating the need for a ‘sociological jurisprudence’ to attack the rules-based, bureaucratised formalist view of the law: Pound (1908). This served as the ‘first step towards a realistic jurisprudence in America’: Bechtler (1977), p 12.

²⁰² Leiter (2005), p 51; Fuller (193 4), pp 431–435; Tumonis (2012), p 1367.

²⁰³ Llewellyn (1950), p 401.

²⁰⁴ Llewellyn (1930), p 74.

²⁰⁵David Kraft (1981) ‘When Favors Come Due’, Savage She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 22.

²⁰⁶‘The life of law has not been logic; it has been experience’: Holmes (1881), p 1.

²⁰⁷See the ‘Realist Manifesto’: Llewellyn (1931).

²⁰⁸David Kraft (1981) ‘When Favors Come Due’ Savage She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 5.

²⁰⁹David Kraft (1981) ‘When Favors Come Due’ Savage She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 22.

²¹⁰David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 7.

²¹¹David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 8.

²¹²David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 9.

²¹³ David Kraft (1981) ‘Reason and Rage’ Savage She-Hulk 12, Marvel Comics, p 8.

²¹⁴ Frank (1930), p 45.

²¹⁵ Frank (1930), p 45; Hernandez (2010), p 917.

²¹⁶David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 9.

²¹⁷Leiboff and Thomas (2009), p 266.

²¹⁸Kirchgässner (1992), p 307.

²¹⁹Joe Quesada (2006) ‘Civil War: Part One’ Civil War 1, Marvel Comics.

²²⁰Joe Quesada (2006) ‘Civil War: Part One’ Civil War 1, Marvel Comics.

²²¹Dan Slott (2006) ‘Civil Union’ She-Hulk 8, Marvel Comics.

²²²Dan Slott (2006) ‘Civil Union’ She-Hulk 8, Marvel Comics.

²²³Schmitt (1985); Agamben (2005).

²²⁴Schmitt (1985), p 5; Agamben (2005), p 2.

²²⁵John Byrne (1992) ‘Cognito’ Sensational She-Hulk 44, Marvel Comics, p 27.

²²⁶David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 21.

²²⁷David Kraft (1981) ‘Through the Crystal!’ Savage She-Hulk 13, Marvel Comics, p 3.

²²⁸David Kraft (1981) ‘Through the Crystal!’ Savage She-Hulk 13, Marvel Comics, p 2.

²²⁹Leiboff and Thomas (2009), p 370.

²³⁰David Kraft (1981) ‘When Favors Come Due’ Savage She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 22.

²³¹David Kraft (1979) ‘Deathrace!!’ Savage She-Hulk 2, Marvel Comics, p 4.

²³²David Kraft (1981) ‘When Favors Come Due’ Savage She-Hulk 18, Marvel Comics, p 21.

²³³David Kraft (1981) ‘Reason and Rage’ Savage She-Hulk 12, Marvel Comics, p 4.

²³⁴David Kraft (1981) ‘Make Way for the Man-Elephant!’ Savage She-Hulk 17, Marvel Comics, p 9.

²³⁵David Kraft (1979) ‘Deathrace!!’ Savage She-Hulk 2, Marvel Comics, p 18.

²³⁶Hernandez (2010), pp 919–923; Llewellyn (1939), p 8; Frank (1950), pp 362–365.

²³⁷Fuller (1977), pp 39–41.

²³⁸Freeman (2008), pp 118–120; Leiboff and Thomas (2009), p 160.

²³⁹David Kraft (1981) ‘Through the Crystal!’ Savage She-Hulk 13, Marvel Comics, p 2.

²⁴⁰David Kraft (1980) ‘The She-Hulk Strikes Back!’ Savage She-Hulk 4, Marvel Comics.

²⁴¹Dan Slott (2005) ‘Time of Her Life’ She-Hulk 5, Marvel Comics.

²⁴²David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics, p 2.

²⁴³She-Hulk sends him hurtling towards the centre of the Earth in an obnoxiously large mechanised snake in David Kraft (1980) ‘The She-Hulk Strikes Back!’ Savage She-Hulk 4, Marvel Comics.

²⁴⁴Stan Lee (1964) ‘The Origin of Daredevil’ Daredevil 1, Marvel Comics.

²⁴⁵Robinson (2004), p 258.

²⁴⁶Taslitz (2004), p 701.

²⁴⁷John Byrne (1989) ‘The World's Greatest Detective!’, The Sensational She-Hulk 8, Marvel Comics, p 14; see also Lisk (2014).

²⁴⁸David Kraft (1980) ‘Enter: Iron Man!’ Savage She-Hulk 6, Marvel Comics, p 13.

²⁴⁹Sarup (1996), p 50.

²⁵⁰Sharp (2012), p 360.

²⁵¹Phillips (2010).

²⁵²Taslitz (2004), p 703.

²⁵³Taslitz (2004), p 703.

²⁵⁴Manderson (2011), p 32.

²⁵⁵Sharp (2012).

²⁵⁶Sharp (2012), p 359.

²⁵⁷As shown in John Byrne (1989) ‘The World's Greatest Detective!’, The Sensational She-Hulk 8, Marvel Comics, p 14.

²⁵⁸David Kraft (1981) ‘The Zapping of the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 16, Marvel Comics.

²⁵⁹David Kraft (1980) ‘War of the Word!’ Savage She-Hulk 10, Marvel Comics, p 16.

²⁶⁰David Kraft (1981) ‘Designer Genes!’ Savage She-Hulk 19, Marvel Comics, p 19.

²⁶¹David Kraft (1981) ‘To Stay the She-Hulk’ Savage She-Hulk 20, Marvel Comics.

²⁶²John Byrne (1989) ‘The World's Greatest Detective!’ The Sensational She-Hulk 8, Marvel Comics, p 5.

²⁶³Butler (1990), p vii.