‘The machine runs itself’: law is technology and Australian embryo and human cloning law

ABSTRACT

Technology law scholarship has a tendency towards the dramatic. Technology causes disruption. Law must catch-up; it must ensure potential benefits from technology and avoid potential harms. There are even concerns that law, as an organiser of human life, is itself becoming eclipsed by forms of technological management. What is often not focused on is the practical process through which concerns about technology become transmuted into legal forms within specific jurisdictions. This paper examines the 23 years of Australian law concerning embryos and human cloning. Inspired by Carl Schmitt’s criticism of modernity’s political institutions and the laws they produce, what is identified is a machine that runs itself. It is shown to be a highly automated process whereby technical experts manage competing values. Rather than law regulating technology or technology regulating law; the Australian study suggests that law and its making, is technological.

KEYWORDS:

• Law and technology
• Australian embryo and human cloning law
• lawmaking
• Carl Schmitt
• experts
• neutralisation

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank Charles Lawson and Edwin Bikundo for their community of Schmitt scholarship. We are further indebted to the comments of two anonymous reviewers. All errors are the responsibility of the authors

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Tranter (2011b).

2 Bennett Moses (2007b); Bennett Moses (2007a).

3 Tranter (2017).

4 Tranter (2011a); Crootof and Ard (forthcoming 2021).

5 Bennett Moses (2011); Bennett Moses (2007c).

6 Biagioli and Buning (2019), p 17.

7 Tranter (2010).

8 Schmitt (1985), p 48.

9 Schmitt (1993).

10 Schmitt (1988a), p 50.

11 Collins (1985).

12 Schmitt (1988a), p 50.

13 Müller (2003).

14 Bikundo and Tranter (2019).

15 Huysmans (2008).

16 McCormick (1997); Suuronen (2020); Rossello (2017).

17 Tranter (2018), p 35,

18 Schmitt (1988b), p 39.

19 Heidegger (1977), p 20; Orr (1974).

20 Suuronen (2020).

21 Suuronen (2020), p 621.

22 For Schmitt, the modern notion of ‘values’, which suppose a subjectivity between values, was also a profound concern, see Schmitt (2018).

23 Schmitt (1993).

24 Suuronen (2020), pp 620–621.

25 McCormick (1997), p 271.

26 Schmitt (1985), p 48; McCormick (1994); Schmitt (1990), p 48.

27 Schmitt (1985), p 28.

28 Schmitt (1985), p 65; Rossello (2017), p 451.

29 Schmitt (1996), p 70.

30 Schmitt (1990), p 53.

31 Schmitt (1996), p 44.

32 Schmitt (1988a), p 33.

33 Schmitt (1988a), p 33.

34 Schmitt (1988a), p 34.

35 Schmitt (1988a), p 43.

36 Schmitt (1988a), p 49. See also Smeltzer (2018), p 595.

37 Schmitt (1988a), pp 23–25; Lawson et al (2019), p 5.

38 Lawson et al (2019), p 6 quoting Schmitt (1988a), p 9.

39 Lawson et al (2019), p 7.

40 Schmitt (1988a), p 49.

41 Schmitt (1988a), p 50.

42 Schmitt (1988a), p 6.

43 Smeltzer (2018), pp 600–603. On Schmitt’s specific account of ‘representation’ and ‘democracy’ in contrast to ‘liberal’ conceptions see Schmitt (2008), pp 271–279.

44 Schmitt (1988a), p 49.

45 Tranter (2018), p 40.

46 Pincus (1995).

47 Scheuerman (2002), p 380; Smeltzer (2018).

48 ‘Cloning of Sheep Stuns Scientists’, The Age, 24 February 1997, p 1; Ronald Kotulak, ‘Scientists Clone Lamb from Cell to Make History’, The Courier Mail, 24 February 1997, p 1.

49 Thomson and Marshall (1998); Thomson et al (1998); Shamblott et al (1998).

50 Tranter (2010), pp 56–60.

51 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998).

52 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001).

53 Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction and the Regulation of Human Research Amendment Bill 2006 (Cth), Bills Digest no. 59 2006–07.

54 Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction Act 2002 (Cth), s 25; Research Involving Human Embryos Act 2002 (Cth), s 47.

55 Legislation Review Committee (2005).

56 Legislation Review Committee (2005), pp xxii–xxiii, 163 and 172.

57 Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction and the Regulation of Human Embryo Research Amendment Act 2006 (Cth), Schedule 1, s 8 and Schedule 2, s 35; Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction Act 2002 (Cth), s 25A; Research Involving Human Embryos Act 2002 (Cth), s 47A.

58 Legislation Review Committee (2011).

59 Legislation Review Committee (2011), pp 15–19.

60 Legislation Review Committee (2011), pp 15, 42 and 53.

61 The Working Group comprised Professor Don Chalmers, Dr Bernadette Tobin, Dr Peter McCullagh, Dr Wes Whitten and Dame Margaret Guilfoyle, Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), p ii.

62 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), p ii.

63 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), pp 47–49.

64 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), p ii.

65 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), pp. 50–65.

66 Hyland (2004); Patriotta (2017).

67 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), p ii.

68 Australian Health Ethics Committee (1998), pp v–vi.

69 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p xvi.

70 Namely, Kevin Andrews MP, Nicola Roxon MP, Bruce Billson MP, Julie Bishop MP, Alan Cadman MP, Duncan Kerr MP, Alan Griffin MP, John Murphy MP, Stuart St Clair MP, Danna Vale MP, Michael Ronaldson MP (until February 2000), Kirsten Livermore MP (until August 2000) and Frank Mossfield MP (until September 1999); Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p xiv.

71 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), pp 7, 237–250.

72 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 7.

73 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 213.

74 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 224 Recommendation 4.

75 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), pp 221–229 Recommendations 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8.

76 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 229 Recommendation 9.

77 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p x, 2.

78 The members of Lockhart Committee comprised Hon John Lockhart QC, Assoc Prof Ian Kerridge, Prof Barry Marshall, Associate Professor Pamela McCombe, Professor Peter Schofield and Professor Loane Skene, Legislation Review Committee (2005), p 188. The members of the Heerey Committee comprised Hon Peter Heerey QC, Professor Loane Skene, Professor Ian Frazer, Rev Kevin McGovern and Dr Faye Thompson, Legislation Review Committee (2011), pp 11–12.

79 Professor Loane Skene.

80 Skene et al (2008), p 135.

81 Lawson et al (2019), p 7.

82 Bonnicksen (2002); Petersen (2002); Goldenblatt (2016); Shafique (2020).

83 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), pp ix–x.

84 Legislation Review Committee (2005), p v.

85 Legislation Review Committee (2005), p 161.

86 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 5.

87 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 7; Legislation Review Committee (2005), p 18; Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 14.

88 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 7; Legislation Review Committee (2005), pp 19–20.

89 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 14.

90 Tranter and Statham (2007), p 362.

91 Harvey (2005), p 129.

92 Harvey (2008), p 34.

93 Dodds and Ankeny (2006), p 103.

94 Steve Dow (1997) ‘Ethicists Predict Human Cloning’, The Age, 25 February 1997, p 7; Graeme Leech (1997) ‘The Genetic Gene’, The Australian, 1 March 1997, p 22.

95 George Pell (2002) ‘Decision a Pyrrhic Victory for Pragmatism’, Sydney Morning Herald, 9 April 2002, p 13.

96 Richard Yallop (2002) ‘No Ban, Urges Stem Pioneer’, The Australian, 14 August 2002, p 5; Stathi Paxinos (2001) ‘Italian Scientist Prepares to Clone Humans’, The Age, 6 August 2001, p 7.

97 Tranter (2010), pp 58, 76.

98 Tranter (2010), pp 63, 74; Harvey (2008), p 34.

99 Loane Skene (2011) ‘It’s a vision thing: the case for a far-sighted approach to stem cell research’, The Conversation, 14 June 2011 (URL: https://theconversation.com/its-a-vision-thing-the-case-for-a-far-sighted-approach-to-stem-cell-research-1790); Kerridge and Bendorf (2011), pp 156–157.

100 Dodds and Ankeny (2006), p 103.

101 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p xiii. Author’s emphasis.

102 Skene et al (2008), pp 133–134.

103 Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction Act 2002 (Cth), s 25A; Research Involving Human Embryos Act 2002 (Cth), s 47A.

104 Legislation Review Committee (2011), pp 5, 14–15.

105 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), p 219.

106 Parker (2009), p 581.

107 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), p 223.

108 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 7; Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 14.

109 Legislation Review Committee (2005), pp 17–18.

110 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 14.

111 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), p 222.

112 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), p 222.

113 Harvey (2008), p 37.

114 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 96.

115 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), p 220.

116 Little (2002).

117 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), Chapter 6.

118 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 92.

119 Little (2002), p 82.

120 Legislation Review Committee (2005), p 163; Skene et al (2008), p 136.

121 Skene et al (2008), p 136.

122 Parker (2009), pp 582–583.

123 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 42.

124 Skene et al (2008), p 134.

125 Parker (2009), p 585.

126 Parker (2009), p 584.

127 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 166.

128 Legislation Review Committee (2005), p xiii; Skene et al (2008), p 137.

129 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 50.

130 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 50.

131 Standing Committee on Legal and Constitutional Affairs (2001), p 122.

132 David van Gend (2011) ‘Cloning: The Blighted Science’, Quadrant Online, 1 November 2011 (URL: https://quadrant.org.au/magazine/2011/11/cloning-the-blighted-science/).

133 Legislation Review Committee (2011), p 53.

134 Parker (2009), p 584.

135 Tranter (2018), p 39.

136 ‘Embryo Work Banned’, The Courier Mail, 26 February 2002, p 1.

137 Michelle Grattan and Deborah Smith (2002) ‘Howard to Study Stem Cell Research’, The Sydney Morning Herald, 27 February 2002, p 7.

138 Sean Parnell (2002), ‘Go-Ahead on Embryos – PM Supports Cell Research’, The Courier Mail, 5 April 2002, p 1; Tranter (2010), p 58.

139 Dodds and Ankeny (2006), p 99.

140 Tranter (2010), pp 58–60.

141 Simon Grose (2006), ‘Government Pays Lip Service to Stem Cell Debate’, Australian Science, August 2006, p 31.

142 Harvey (2008), p 39.

143 Nemes (2008), pp 141–142.

144 By Senator Kay Patterson.

145 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), p 225; Harvey (2008), p 40.

146 Lysaght and Kerridge (2012), p 196

147 Revised Explanatory Memorandum, Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction and the Regulation of Human Embryo Research Amendment Bill 2006 (Cth), Appendix 1.

148 Legislation Review Committee (2005), p xxiii; Revised Explanatory Memorandum, Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction and the Regulation of Human Embryo Research Amendment Bill 2006 (Cth), Appendix 1.

149 Legislation Review Committee (2011), pp 42–54.

150 Tim Dean (2011) ‘Australian stem cell researchers call for less regulatory red tape’, Australian Biotechnology News, 2 March 2011 (URL: https://www.labonline.com.au/content/life-scientist/news/australian-stem-cell-researchers-call-for-less-regulatory-red-tape-1132184227); Andrew Elefanty et al (2011) ‘Striking the balance in laws for stem cell research’, The Conversation, 24 April 2011 (URL: https://theconversation.com/striking-the-balance-in-laws-for-stem-cell-research-309).

151 Ankeny and Dodds (2008), pp 224–225.

152 Dean Jaensch (2002), ‘More conscience voting to shake security blankets’, The Advertiser, 11 April 2002, p 18.

153 Tranter (2018), p 39.

154 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 20 August 2002, p 5242 (Simon Crean, Leader of the Opposition); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 20 August 2002, p 5255 (Nicola Roxon); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 28 August 2002, pp 6055–6056 (Petro Georgiou); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 28 August 2002, p 6065 (Barry Wakelin); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 21 August 2002, p 5410 (Duncan Kerr).

155 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 22 August 2002, p 5465 (John Murphy); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 28 August 2002, p 6104 (Kevin Andrews, Minister for Ageing).

156 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 20 August 2002, p 5259 (Bruce Billson); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 20 August 2002, p 5249 (Stephen Smith); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 22 August 2002, p 5455 (Julie Bishop); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 27 August 2002, pp 5864, 5866 (Lawrence Ferguson).

157 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 4 December 2006, p 134 (John Anderson, Deputy Prime Minister); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 5 December 2006, p 70 (Patrick Secker); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 5 December 2006, p 116 (Steven Ciobo); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, 118 (John Howard, Prime Minister).

158 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 6 November 2006, p 157 (Eric Abetz).

159 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 4 December 2006, p 123 (John Murphy).

160 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 10 (Laurence Ferguson); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 17 (Margaret May); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 56 (Joe Hockey, Minister for Human Services); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 63 (Michael Keenan); Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 118 (John Howard, Prime Minister).

161 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 33 (Bruce Billson, Minister for Veterans’ Affairs).

162 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 44 (Kay Elson).

163 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 30 November 2006, p 13 (Julie Gillard).

164 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, Senate, 6 November 2006, p 5 (Natasha Stott Despoja).

165 Commonwealth Parliamentary Debates, House of Representatives, 6 December 2006, p 58 (Julie Bishop, Minister for Education, Science and Training).

166 Tranter (2018), p 40.

167 Prohibition of Human Cloning for Reproduction Act 2002 (Cth), ss 25 and 25A; Research Involving Human Embryos Act 2002 (Cth), ss 47 and 47A.

168 Foong (2019), p 384.

169 Foong (2019), p 384; Legislation Review Committee (2011), pp 15–19.

170 Schmitt (1990), p 53; Scheuerman (2002).

171 Tranter (2018) pp 40–41.

172 Hart (1994).

173 Hart (1994), p 94.

174 Hart (1983).

175 Llewellyn (2019).

176 Collins (1985).

177 Melleuish and Chavura (2016); Berg (2017).

178 Barnes (2018).

179 Tilbury (2005).

180 Gardiner and Martin (1963); Farrar (1974).

181 Weisbrot (2005); Barnett (2011).

182 Bennett Moses et al (2015).

183 On the National Transport Commission as an engine of transport law and policy reform see Brady (2019)

184 Tranter (2015), p 358.

185 Australian Human Rights Commission (2014). On the political controversy of the report see Brodie (2015).

186 See for example Australian Law Reform Commission (2019), p 31; Productivity Commission (2019), pp 20–21.

187 See for example Fairfield (2021).

188 Brownsword (2019), pp 3–35.

189 Brownsword (2019), pp 111–133.

190 Bennett Moses (2011).

191 Brownsword (2019), p 132.

192 Thornton (2002), p 3.

193 Tranter (2018), pp 107–108.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Vincent Goding

Vincent Goding, BMkt, LLB(Hon), Grad Dip Legal Practice (Griffith University). He is a student in the Doctor of Philosophy program at the University of the Sunshine Coast and an Australian Government Research Training Program Scholarship recipient. He also teaches at Griffith University.

Kieran Tranter

Kieran Tranter, BSc, LLB(Hon), PhD, Chair of Law, Technology and Future, Queensland University of Technology. He investigates the cultural intersection of law and technology to image and articulate better human futures. His current projects examine the science fictionality of law and technology, the car in the Australian settler state and emerging forms and politics of digital legality.