Effects of Reduced Carbonate Saturation State on Early Development in the Common Edible Sea Urchin Lytechinus variegatus: Implications for Land-Based Aquaculture

Abstract

Land-based aquaculture facilities often utilize additional bicarbonate sources such as commercial sea salts that are designed to boost alkalinity in order to buffer seawater against reductions in pH. Despite these preventative measures, many facilities are likely to face occasional reductions in pH and corresponding reductions in carbonate saturation states due to the accumulation of metabolic waste products. We investigated the impact of reduced carbonate saturation states (Ω_Ca, Ω_Ar) on embryonic developmental rates, larval developmental rates, and echinoplutei skeletal morphometrics in the common edible sea urchin Lytechinus variegatus under high alkalinity conditions. Commercial artificial seawater was bubbled with a mixture of air and CO₂ gas to reduce the carbonate saturation state. Rates of embryonic and larval development were significantly delayed in both the low and extreme low carbonate saturation state groups relative to the control at a given time. Although symmetry of overall skeletal body lengths was not affected, allometric relationships were significantly different between treatment groups. Larvae reared under ambient conditions had significantly greater postoral arm and overall body lengths relative to body lengths than larvae grown under extreme low carbonate saturation state conditions, indicating that extreme changes in the carbonate system affected not only developmental rates but also larval skeletal shape. Reduced rates of embryonic development and delayed and altered larval skeletal growth are likely to negatively impact larval culturing of L. variegatus in land-based, intensive culture situations where calcite and aragonite saturation states are lowered by the accumulation of metabolic waste products.

Keywords:

• Skeletal morphometrics
• larval development
• embryo development
• echinoid
• carbon dioxide

Notes

We wish to thank Minako Vickery for her advice on raising echinoplutei and the assistance of Mickie Powell, Katie Gibbs, and Stephen Watts for information on maintaining both the larvae and adults of Lytechinus variegatus. Robert Angus and Charles Katholi kindly assisted with statistical analysis. This research was funded in part by an endowment in Polar and Marine Biology provided to James B. McClintock by the University of Alabama at Birmingham and by funds from Abercrombie and Kent Philanthropy. Robert Makowsky was supported through post-doctoral training grant T32 HL072757 from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute.