Without Contraries is no Progression

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Notes

1 Pennycook might disagree somewhat with the latter premise; we will discuss this more thoroughly in the Quibbles section.

2 Azevedo might disagree with this.

3 We think Pennycook would agree with this. Our disagreement with him simply might be with the size or significance of tribally motivated cognition, not with the existence of it.

4 Van Bavel et al. correctly noted that there is no dichotomy between genetic and environmental explanations. Almost all human traits result from a combination of both.

5 However, biases will be small to non-existent when the evidence is so strong that it is indisputable (e.g., sprinting speed differences between men and women). See the target article for our discussion of how ambiguity exacerbates biases.