Educational Transfers in Postcolonial Contexts: Preliminary Results From Comparative Research on Workers’ Faculties in Vietnam, Cuba, and Mozambique

Abstract

Worker’s Faculties, which have been widespread in the Soviet Union up until 1941, combined the two goals of preparing adult workers and peasants for university entrance through the provision of general education, as well as creating a new socialist intelligentsia from among these groups. After World War II, Workers’ Faculties were also established in postcolonial countries. Based on case studies in Vietnam, Cuba, and Mozambique, we argue that corresponding transfer processes were largely driven by local actors in the respective countries and that these institutions were regarded as suitable instruments in solving problems particular to postcolonial contexts.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This paper results from a presentation in the Working Group Governing Learning and Learners at the XXVI Conference of the Comparative Education Society in Europe (CESE) on Governing Educational Spaces: Knowledge, Teaching, and Learning in Transition that took place from June 10–13, 2014, in Freiburg/Germany. We thank the organizers and participants of the panel, as well as the editors of this special issue and the two anonymous reviewers for comments on the presentation and an earlier draft of this paper.

Notes

¹We will not enter into a discussion on what globalization is in this article, but follow Dale and Robertson (2012, p. 23, citing Dale & Robertson, 2009) who note that with regards to education, one of the effects of globalization is a “shift away from a predominantly national education system to a more fragmented, multi-scalar and multi-sectoral distribution of activity that now involves new players, new ways of thinking about knowledge production and distribution, and new challenges in terms of ensuring the distribution of opportunities for access and social mobility.”

²Phillips and Ochs (2004) is a notable contribution to historical studies in comparative education.

³“Globalization of an Educational Idea: Workers’ Faculties in Cuba, Mozambique, and Vietnam,” funded by the German Research Council (DFG), 2013–2016, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen. Project supervisor Prof. Dr. Ingrid Miethe.

⁴In the text we use the term Rabfak to refer to the specific Soviet case. We use the term “Workers’ Faculty” more generally to refer to all educational institutions that incorporate the two goals of preparing adult workers and peasants for university entrance by providing general education, as well as of creating a new intelligentsia from among these groups.

⁵Die Kim-Ir-Sun-Universität von heute [The Kim-Ir-Sun-University of today] (n.d., no author). BArch, DY6, 1897 Bericht über die ABF in Bulgarien, Polen, CSSR [Report on the Worker-Peasant Faculty in Bulgaria, Poland, Czechoslovakia]. BArch, DR 3 (1. Schicht), 430.

⁶We follow La Belle & Ward (1990, p. 96) who in their comparative study of educational reform during radical political and social transformation use the term transformation rather than revolution, as it can be considered “more inclusive of the variety of shifts in power” and evades a long discussion on which processes should be classified as revolutions.

⁷Ban Bí thư khóa II [Secretariat of the Central Committee of the VWP, 2nd session] (1952). Nghị quyết số 30-NQ/TƯ, về việc đẩy mạnh công tác giáo dục bổ túc văn hóa [Resolution No. 30-NQ/TW on strengthening the work of Complementary Education]. http://dangcongsan.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDetail.aspx?co_id=28340670&cn_id=490332 Vietnamese spelling including diacritics is used according to the usage in the original sources. Where archival sources do not use diacritics, these are also absent in the citations and references provided here.

⁸Bo Giao duc, Nha Binh dan hoc vu [Ministry of Education, Department for Popular Education] (n.d.). Nhung y kien gop vao viec xac dinh duong loi tien hanh xoa nan mu chu, bo tuc van hoa va nhiem vu cua nganh binh dan hoc vu [Some comments regarding the determination of ways to carry out illiteracy elimination, complementary education and the tasks of promoting popular education]. Vietnam National Archives Centre 3 (VNAC 3), Ministry of Education Fonds (MoE), 3761, 49–54.

⁹Bo Giao duc, Nha Binh dan hoc vu [Ministry of Education, Department of Popular Education] (7.1.1957). Bao-cao ve Truong Bo Tuc van hoa cong nong [Report on the Worker-Peasant Complementary Education School]. VNAC3, MoE, 3768, 1–10.

¹⁰Bo Giao duc [Ministry of Education] (30.9.1958). [Untitled letter concerning student applications for the Worker-Peasant Complementary Education School]. VNAC3, MoE, 3805, 20–28.

¹¹Ban Bí thư khóa II [Secretariat of the Central Committee of the VWP, 2nd session] (21.12.1955). Thông tri số 82-TT/TW về việc chọn học sinh thành phần công nông để học bổ túc cấp tốc về văn hoá [Notification No. 82-TT/TW on the selection of worker-peasant pupils for fast complementary education]. http://dangcongsan.vn/cpv/Modules/News/NewsDetail.aspx?co_id=28340670&cn_id=490786. Bộ Giáo dục, Bổ túc văn hóa [Ministry of Education, Complementary Education] (26.5.1962). Báo cáo chất lương các trường BTVH công nông và những đề nghị nham năng cao chất lượng những trường này [Report on the quality of Worker-Peasant Complementary Education Schools and Some Suggestions to Enhance the Quality of These Schools]. VNAC3, MoE, 3996, 1–6.

¹²See footnote 10. It was thus not a university faculty in administrative terms.

¹³Bộ Giáo dục, Vu Giao duc Cap III [Ministry of Education, Level III Education Service] (15.9.1964). Báo cáo tổng kết kinh nghiêm các chu trương cua Bộ Giáo dục về trường Bổ túc công nông [Summary Report on the Experiences of Policies of the Ministry of Education Regarding the Worker-Peasant Complementary School]. VNAC3, MoE, 4054, 1–9.

¹⁴Bộ Giáo dục, Vụ Giáo dục Cấp III [Ministry of Education, Level III Education Service] (n.d.). Tờ trình Bộ Giáo dục về nhiệm vụ và hướng phát triển các trường Bổ túc văn hóa CN [Report of the Ministry of Education on Tasks and the Direction of the Development of Worker-Peasant Complementary Education Schools]. VNAC3, MoE, 3996, pp. 22–24. Bộ Giáo dục, Vụ Giáo dục Cấp III [Ministry of Education, Level III Education Service] (1964). Ph/ Hương mới đối với trường BTVH [New Orientation Regarding Complementary Education Schools; Letter to the Minister of Education]. VNAC3, MoE, 4054, pp. 10–14.

¹⁵Bases de la Facultad Preparatoria Obrero-Campesina [Bases of the Preparatory Workers’ and Peasants’ Faculty] (n.d.). José Martí National Library, stock Juán Marinello, CM- Marinello-862.

¹⁶Politbüro der SED [Politburo of the Socialist Unity Party of Germany] (15.11.1960) Protokoll der SED-Politbürositzung vom 15.11.1960: Besuch einer Wirtschaftsdelgation der Regierung Kubas [Protocol of the Politburo Session 15 November 1960: Visit of an Economic Delegation of the Government of Cuba]. Protocol No. 52/60. BArch DY 30 J IV2/2 / 733, pp. 1–31.

¹⁷Max Zeuske: Berufungsakte der Universität Rostock [Max Zeuske: appointment file of the University of Rostock]. (n.d., no author.) BArch DR/3/B / 5697, pp. 1–125.

¹⁸Facultad Obrera [Workers’ Faculty] (20.11.1961). José Martí National Library, stock Juán Marinello, CM-Marinello-458.

¹⁹See footnote 14.

²⁰Including students of preparatory courses.

²¹Significantly, through the name of Julio Antonio Mella, leader of the Cuban student movement in the first half of the 20th century and cofounder of the Cuban Communist Party, a link was established to a tradition of popular education in Cuba, such as the Universidad Popular José Martí, organized by Mella between 1923 and 1927, which aimed at providing education to workers on an academic level (Vida Universitaria, 1963b, p. 22).

²²Statistical data on the illiteracy rate in 1975 is incomplete, estimations vary from 85% (Barnes, 1982, p. 406), 90% (Grajek, 2005, p. 21), 93% (Johnston, 1990, p. 275; Tullner, 2005, p. 392), 95% (Castiano, 1997, p. 84) to 97% (Mouzinho & Nandja, 2005, p. 3).

²³See Documents of the 3rd FRELIMO Congress of 1977, especially the “Economic and Social Directives” concerning the educational sector (FRELIMO, 1977, pp. 139–187).

²⁴Ministerio de Educação e Cultura [Ministry of Education and Culture] (1977). “O Homem Novo” [“The New Man”]. 2ª Reunião Nacional do Ministerio de Educação e Cultura em 1977 [Second National Reunion of the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1977]. Historical Archive of Mozambique (HAM), Documentation Ganhão, 59.

²⁵The law on the new “National Education System” (SNE—Sistema Nacional de Educação) was approved by the People’s Assembly on 23.03.1983 (Lei no. 4/1983).

²⁶For example: Ministerium für Hoch- und Fachschulwesen der DDR, Abteilung Ausland II [Ministry of Higher and Technical Education of the GRD, Department Foreign Countries II] (29.10.1981). Protokoll über die Ergebnisse der Gespräche zwischen dem Minister für Erziehung und Kultur der Volksrepublik Mocambique, Genossin Graca Machel und dem Genossen H.-J. Böhme am 29.10.1981, Berlin, DDR [Protocol on the results of the conversation between the Minister of Education and Culture of PR Mozambique, Comrade Graca Machel and the Minister of Higher and Technical Education in the GRD, Comrade H.-J. Böhme, 29 October 1981, Berlin, GDR]. BArch, DR3, II.Schicht, B 1560/3.

²⁷Eduardo Mondlane was a founding member of the FRELIMO as well as its first president from 1962 until his assassination in 1969 (Mateus, 2006, pp. 239–241).

²⁸FRELIMO (13.12.1975). Resoluções finais da reunião de 10 a 13 de dezembro de 1975 dirigida pelo camarada Presidente com as F.P.L.M (Forças Populares de Libertação de Moçambique) [Final resolution of the December 13, 1975 meeting of the comrade President with the F.P.L.M. (Peoples Army for the Liberation of Mozambique)]. HAM, Documentation Ganhão, 7.

Mondlane, E. (1967). Os estudantes no exterior e a luta de libertação nacional—Introdução [The students abroad and the National Liberation Struggle—Introduction]. Dar-es-Salaam: Ministério da Informação Moçambique [Ministry of Information Mozambique]. HAM, Documentation Ganhão, 7.

²⁹DDR-Lehrkräfte an der UEM [GDR teachers at the UEM] (16.01.1980). Halbjahresbericht 2/79 der DDR-Lehrkräfte an der Universität “Eduardo Mondlane” in Maputo an das MHF der DDR [Semi-annual report 2/1979 by the GDR teachers at the University “Eduardo Mondlane” in Maputo to the Ministry of Higher Education of the GDR]. BArch, DR3, II. Schicht, 1540.

UEM (July 1981). Informação. Assunto: Ponto da Situação do 1 Curso de Gestão de Empresas [Information. Subject: Situation of the first business administration and management course]. HAM, documentation Ganhão, 55.

³⁰UEM (November 1985a). O que é o Curso Pré-Universitário da Faculdade de Antigos Combatentes e Trabalhadores de Vanguarda [What Is the Pre-University Course at the Faculty of Former Combatants and Vanguard Workers]. HAM, documentation Ganhão, 16.

³¹FACOTRAV, UEM (13.09.1985). Perfil do Finalista da Faculdade —Sintese das Propostas [Profile of the Graduate—Synthesis of Suggestions]. HAM, documentation Ganhão, 16.

UEM (November 1985b). Curriculum do Curso Pré-Universitário da Faculdade de Antigos Combatentes e Trabalhadores de Vanguarda [Curriculum of the Pre-Univeristy Course at the Faculty of Former Combatants and Vanguard Workers]. HAM, documentation Ganhão, 16.

³²Leiter der DDR-Lehrkräfte an der UEM [Chief of the GDR Teachers at the UEM] (29.04.1980). Streng vertraulicher Halbjahresbericht 1/80 des Leiters der Arbeitsgruppe der DDR-Lehrkräfte an der Universität Eduardo Mondlane [Secret Semi-Annual Report 1/80 by the Chief of the Working Group of the GDR Teachers at the University Eduardo Mondlane]. BArch, DR3, II.Schicht, 1540.

See also interviews with former FACOTRAV staff in Mozambique, 2014.

³³Ministerio de Educação e Cultura (04.07.1977) Relatório: Ensino Superior. Visita da Delegação do MEC à Republica Socialista de Cuba [Report: Higher Education. Visit of the MEC delegation to the Socialist Republic of Cuba]. HAM, Documentation Ganhão, 29.

³⁴DDR-Experten an der UEM [GDR experts at UEM] Halbjahresbericht I/1983 vom Juli 1983 [Semi-Annual Report I/1983, July 1983]. BArch, DR3, II. Schicht, 1540.

See also interviews with former FACOTRAV staff in Mozambique, 2014.

³⁵DDR-Berater Strobel [GDR advisor Strobel] (1981). Bericht zur Einrichtung einer ABF-ähnlichen Einrichtung an der UEM [Report on the Establishment of an ABF-like Institution at the UEM]. BArch, DR3, II. Schicht, 1540.

³⁶DDR-Lehrkräfte an der UEM [GDR teaching staff at UEM] (1. Semester 1983). I. Teilbericht: Gesellschaftswissenschaftlicher Bereich, Mathematik und Medizinische Fakultät [First Report Section: Social Science Department, Mathematics, and Medical Faculty]. BArch, DR3, II. Schicht, 1540.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Tim Kaiser

Dr. Tim Kaiser is a research fellow at the Department for General Educational Science, University of Giessen, Germany. His research focuses on local responses to the spread of modernity in education and urban development in Southeast Asia. He published his dissertation Transnational Impact on Urban Change: Modern Projects in Vinh, Vietnam in December 2014.

Tobias Kriele

Tobias Kriele is a research fellow at the Department for General Educational Science, University of Giessen, Germany. After defending his PhD thesis in Philosophy of Technology at Havana University in 2013, he widened his research focus to include educational transfer and Cuban history.

Ingrid Miethe

Ingrid Miethe is a full professor for education at University of Giessen, Germany. Her main research interests focus on history of education, educational transfer, biographical research and social inequality.

Alexandra Piepiorka

Alexandra Piepiorka is a researcher fellow at the Department for General Educational Science, University of Giessen, Germany. She studied in Bremen and Osnabrueck in Germany, as well as Ponta Delgada and Coimbra in Portugal and holds a master’s degree in international migration studies and intercultural communication. She is working on her PhD thesis, on socialist development cooperation in education. The thesis focuses on the historical example of higher education in Mozambique and the country’s experience in cooperating with international development aid workers, especially from Eastern and Western Germany.