To Serve God and King: The Origins of Public Schools for Native Children in Eighteenth-century Northern Peru

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Notes

Archival Abbreviations

Archivo Arzobispal de Trujillo (AAT)

Archivo General de las Indias (AGI), Seville

Archivo de Límites, Lima (ALL)

Archivo del Instituto Riva Agüero (AIRA), Lima

Archivo Nacional del Perú (ANP), Lima

Superior Gobierno (SG)

Archivo Regional de Trujillo (now, Archivo Regional de La Libertad) (ART)

Intendencia, Asuntos de Gobierno (IAG)

Intendencia, Causa Criminal (ICC)

Intendencia, Ordinario (IO)

Intendencia, Pedimento (IP)

Biblioteca Nacional del Perú (BNP), Lima

Cuaderno (c.)

Expediente (exp.)

Folio (f.)

Legajo (leg.)

¹ On Túpac Amaru and the rebellions of the southern Andes, see Garrett (2005), Serulnikov (2003), Thomson (2002), Golte (1980), and O'Phelan (1985, 1995). On lesser-known revolts, insurrections, and unrest in general, see Hidalgo (1995) and Sala i Vila (1995). On Ezyaguirre and native stereotypes, see Walker (1995).

2. Valcárcel (1968), 9–11, 43, 45–56, 80–90); Olaechea Labayen (1958a, 859); Enríquez (1927, 219–23); Guibovich Pérez (1993, 272); Angeles Caballero (1958, 108–10); Barrantes (1989, 26–27, 53); Culquichicón Gómez (1999, 121–22); Mateos (1951), 591–92); MacClean y Estenós (1943), 14–63 and especially 22, 47, 53–60); Zevallos Quiñones (1981, 33–36 citing ANP/Salinas 1547, f. 325); ART/Cabildo leg. 10, exp. 203, 20-II-1601; Mata, leg. 18, 7-VI-1586, 220–22 (courtesy of Juan Castañeda); AIRA/L-I-47; c. 38, 4-b, 21. See also Rodríguez Lorenzo (1999, 49, 58 on colegios in Mexico and Quito).

3. Valcárcel (1968, 30, 38); Mateos (1951, 594); Vargas Ugarte (1972, 166–67); Bayle (1941, 217–18, 222–23 for a list of girls schools); Angeles Caballero (1958), 110; 1960, 72–73; a more complete description continues in subsequent pages); Van Deusen (2001, especially 23–35, 38, 48, 50–52, 102, 107–11).

4. Bayle (1941, 216); Laspalas Pérez (1990, 141–44); Busto (1953–1955, 139–40); Rodríguez Lorenzo (1999, 58); Valcárcel (1968, 21, 30, 91–92, 97); Olaechea Labayen (1958b, especially 133–50); Mateos (1951, 591); Canedo (1966, 622); Guaman Poma de Ayala (1980, 672 [686]); Vargas Ugarte (1940, 555, 558, 562); BNP/D5895, 1809; ART/Obregon, leg. 41, exp. 250, 13-VIII-1594, f. 305r–v, courtesy of Juan Castañeda; AIRA/C 38, 4-b, 1790, 20v; ANP/Temporalidades (Colegio del Príncipe), leg. 171, 1578–1820, 1; Macera (1966, 329, 339, 341, 348); Puente Brunke (1998, 461, 464); Angulo (1920, 340); Dávila (1937, especially 332–33); Duviols (1977, 329–30, 335–38); Pease (1968–1969, 82–83); Barrantes (1989, 53); Galdo Gutiérrez (1970); Recopilación (1973, libro VI, titl. VII); and Ramírez (2005). See the demands in 1746–1760 for education by one native, Padre Fray Calixto Túpak Inka (1948, especially 26 and 42); Andrien, (2001, 99, 115–16); Cárdenas Ayaipoma (1975–1976, 6–7, 10, 15); Angeles Caballero (1958, 107). The Libro de la Fundación del Colegio de los Hijos de Caciques in Lima has been published in Esquilache (1923, 778–883). It contains transcriptions of royal provisions, regulations, student lists (by year from 1618 to 1803), and related documents. For a list of the students of the Colegio de San Borja in 1763, see Indios de Sangre Real (1950, 204–32). On efforts to educate the natives of the Audiencia of Quito, see Hartmann and Oberem (1981). Other extant records mention that native youngsters studied alongside their Spanish and Creole counterparts in Paucartambo and Santiago de Cao in the second half of the eighteenth century. The school in Paucartambo was founded in the 1740s, but was already in disrepair and deteriorating in the 1770s and 17780s (ALL/LB 566, leg. 268, 1783, 15v, 121). In Guamachuco the native community hired a teacher to instruct its youth on an exclusive, continuing, and institutionalized basis before Bishop Martínez Compañón began his campaign to found schools. ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 115r–v, 117; LB 566, leg. 268, 1783, 15v, 121.

5. AAL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 115r–v, 117; MacClean y Estenós (1943, 59); Vargas Ugarte (1972); Macera (1966). Among those who mention primary school, Daniel Restrepo Manrique (1993, 2:85–94) dedicates less than 10 pages to the bishop's educational efforts at all levels.

6. The Jesuits exhibited advanced and possibly dangerous ideas (from the Crown's point of view) as early as the late sixteenth century. See Konetzke (1953, 1: No. 416, 25 May 1583, p. 550).

7. On other revolts and rebellions in or after 1783, see ART/IP, leg. 435, exp. 3630, 18-V-1798; IO, leg. 320, exp. 510, 7-XI-1797; ICC, leg. 356, exp. 1446, 1786; ANP/SG, leg. 17, c. 464, 1783; BNP/C2480; ANP/DI, leg. 21, c. 360, 1774–76; SG, leg. 11, c. 232, 1757; SG, leg. 152, c. 249; SG-Contenciosos, leg. 121, c. 1445, 1779; SG-Contenciosos, leg. 191, c. 1447; Wood (1986, 24).

8. The proposals for the schools he envisioned are in AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), especially IV: 6, 9; V: 28; X: 8. See also Torres (1879, 21); Ballesteros Gaibrois (1993, 2:f. 65). The date that Martínez Compañón assumed the bishopric is disputed. Gutiérrez, Vallin, and Muñoz (1984, 111) write March instead of May. The month of May is confirmed by Restrepo Manrique (1992, 1:31). For a brief biography of the bishop, see Torres (1879) and Vargas Ugarte (1942).

9. Phelan (1978); O'Phelan (1995, 125, 131, 148); Stern (1987, 68); ANP/DI, leg. 23, c. 391, 1779, especially f. 8.

10. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), V: 1, 7v, 10v, 11v, 15, 20–22, 28–29; AAT/Colegios, J-1-2, 1783, 2 (for the quote).

11. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), V: 10v (for the quote); AAT/Colegios J-1-2, 1783, 1v (for the quote). See also Restrepo Manrique (1993, 83).

12. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 7; V: 2, 11, 21–22. For examples of prejudices and stereotypical attitudes, see the letter from Fray Antonio Muchotrigo of the Pueblo of Eten and the letter from the priest of Santiago de Cao, dated 25 February 1785 (ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 111, 119). In AAT/Colegios J-1-2, 1783, 105, Martínez Compañón argues that natives are not inferior. See also Wood (1986, 18 and 21), which says (in part): ‘In 1788, the governor of Santa Cruz informed the Real Audiencia concerning the Moxos, writing that “everything that is said about the inability, inconstancy and indifference of the Indians, all of it is a theatrical fiction, fabricated by tyranny or by necessity. The Moxos Indians are … humble, docile, industrious, and apt for all the arts and trades. …” ’

13. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), V: 15, 21, 28–29.

14. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), II: 11; V: 12–13, 22–23; AAT/Colegios, J-1-2, 1783, 2. Folio 5v of the same manuscript restates that education will ‘form of each of you a good person, a good Christian, and a good Vassal, who will know how to make himself useful to God, to the State, and to himself.’ Also quoted in Ballesteros Gaibrois (1993, f. 65).

15. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 27, 51; IV: 2; ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 4. See also f. 34v. On education as an efficient means to effect his ends, see ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 131.

16. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 46; Culquichicón Gómez (1999, 123). After the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1767, Martínez Compañón rehabilitated the Colegio del Salvador, calling it the Seminario de Ordenados for students to prepare for the priesthood. Gutiérrez, Vallin, Muñoz (1984, 112) give 54 as the number of schools that he founded. Note that Vargas Ugarte (1972, 165–66) writes that only 49 were actually established, distributed as follows: Trujillo 2; Piura 2; Saña13; Chachapoyas 2; Lamas 2; Moyobamba 2; Cajamarca 6; Guambos 8; Huamachuco 7; Cajamarquilla 5. Restrepo Manrique (1992, 1:162) gives the number as 51, of which 37 were approved by the vice regal government on the 18 May 1786. This author states that few of these schools actually opened. His view may be due to the limited sources that he had at his disposal.

17. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 6, 9, 12, 16–18; ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 4 and 34v; Restrepo Manrique (1993, 87).

18. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 9–12, 24. For help in translating the names of the hymns, I am indebted to Father Thomas Croak, C.M.

19. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 13.

20. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 14–16.

21. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), II: 1, 2–4 (for the quote).

22. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 10, 24, 31; V: 26.

23. ART/IAG, leg. 416, exp. 2689, 30-III-1816; AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 55, 59–60; Macera (1966, 329–30); on the scarcity of teachers, Vargas Ugarte (1972, 162); for the quote, Restrepo Manrique (1993, 92); Ballesteros Gaibrois (1993, f. 69).

24. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 7 (for the quote), 51; III: 1; IV: 2–3, 11; Restrepo Manrique (1993, 69); Macera (1966, 330). Tanck de Estrada (1999) states that the main objective of similar schools established under the Bourbons in Mexico was to teach the young Indians how to speak Spanish.

25. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 8–9; ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 4.

26. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), III: 13; IV: 3; V: loose unnumbered page; 13v, 15v, 16v–17, 30.

27. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), V: 15v–16, 17.

28. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), II: 8–10, 13.

29. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 48, 66–67; V: 20r–v. Another school for daughters of noble natives, Spaniards, whites, and mixed peoples was planned for the Province of Huamachuco, supported with contributions of cattle and cash.

30. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 33–34, 41; IV: 14; V: unnumbered page 17v; Restrepo Manrique (1992, I, 161). All pesos have been converted to pesos of eight reales each unless otherwise indicated. Reales are rounded to the nearest whole. For comparison purposes, it is worth noting that native laborers doing tribute service under the Spanish usually earned two reales or a fourth of a peso per day for agricultural work. On the Peruvian coast, they were required to work a few months a year for local estate owners. See also Restrepo Manrique (1993, 86).

31. ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 8v, 117–18; LEA 21-4, leg. 83, 1782-86; Restrepo Manrique (1993, 86).

32. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 47; V: 10, 14, 16 (for the quote), 17, 18r–v, 27. See also Restrepo Manrique (1993, 86).

33. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), IV: 5; V: 18; Macera (1966, 311); AAT/Colegios J-1-2, 1783, 4; Restrepo Manrique (1993, 86).

34. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), IV: 1; V: 18v–19v, 20v.

35. AGI/Estado 75, No. 109 (1), I: 32, 34–36, 40–43, 54–55; IV: 11; V: 13, 25–26; VIII: 4v-5, 8. Gutiérrez et al. (1984, 112).

36. ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 130v (for the quote). Apparently, Martínez Compañón remained involved in the schools even after accepting the transfer to Bogotá. Vargas Ugarte (1972, 165) mentions that he named a primary school teacher (Pablo Gaona) to the school of San Pablo (Cajamarca) in 1794.

37. See the correspondence between Martínez Compañón and the officials of Chachapoyas in ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, especially 1–13. See ALL/Leb 4-13, leg. 90, 1782-86, 6 on Viceroy Jaúregui and f. 68 on the intendant. Other correspondence with the Viceroy regarding the approval of schools in Lamas, Tarapoto, and Chachapoyas appears in ALL/Lea 21-4, leg. 83, 1782-86, 17v.

38. Chambers (1999, 33–34); Vargas Ugarte (1972, 163); BNP/C1290, 1795; C1465, 1792, 1–3; C3988, 1795; D5890, 1811; D5894, 1809; D5970, 1811.

39. BNP/C1465, 1792; C1290, 1795; C3988, 1795; D5894, 1809.

40. BNP/D5889, 1811; D5890, 1811; D5895, 1809, 14, 25, 29; D5970, 1811; D9678, 1819; Vargas Ugarte (1972, 162) also notes that parents hid children to prevent them from attending school or took their children from school because of economic necessity.

41. Macera (1966, 335); ART/IAG, leg. 414, exp. 2567, 29-I-1812; leg. 416, exp. 2689, 30-III-1816; BNP/D5894, 1809; Restrepo Manrique (1992, 1:163, citing Archivo Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá/Miscelanea 60); Premo (2005, 149, 237; 2006); Arrom (2000).