The Ottoman Empire and Russia in Light of Their Geopolitical Demarcation

Abstract

The article analyzes Russian—Ottoman relations from the territorial point of view. The author traces stages of these relations and shows how the attitudes of Russian power and society to the problem of southward expansion changed through centuries. She concludes that in the nineteenth century Russia ceased to be interested in the military solution of the “Eastern Question” and it was often the pressure of European international affairs that made the country wage war against its southern neighbor.

Notes

1. See A.N. Kurat, Türkiye ve Idil boyu (1569 Astarhan severi. Ten-Idil kanali ve XVI–XVII yüzyil osmanh-rus münaseletleri) [sic, should be Türkiye ve İdil Boyu (1569 Astarhan Seferi, Ten-İdil Kanalı ve XVI–XVII. Yüzyıl Osmanlı-Rus Münasebetleri)—Trans.] (Ankara, 1966).

2. Polnoe sobranie russkikh letopisei, vol. 24, pp. 224, 225.

3. M.G. Safargaliev, Raspad Zolotoi Ordy (Saransk, 1960), pp. 258–67.

4. See V.P. Zagorovskii, Istoriia vkhozhdeniia Tsentral’nogo Chernozem’ia v sostav Rossiiskogo gosudarstva v XVIII v. (Voronezh, 1991); M.K. Liubavskii, Obzor istorii russkoi kolonizatsii s drevneishikh vremen do XX veka (Moscow, 1996); Osmanskaia imperiia i strany Tsentral’noi, Vostochnoi i Iugo-Vostochnoi Evropy v XV–XVI vv. (Moscow, 1984).

5. See G.F. Beliaev, O storozhevoi, stanichnoi i polevoi sluzhbe na pol’skoi ukraine Moskovskogo gosudarstva do tsaria Alekseia Mikhailovicha (Moscow, 1846); F.G. Bagalei, Materialy po istorii kolonizatsii i byta stepnoi okrainy Moskovskogo gosudarstva. (Khar’kovskoi i otchasti Kurskoi i Voronezhskoi gubernii) (Kharkov, 1886); Voronezhskii krai s drevneishikh vremen do kontsa XVII vega. Dokumenty i materialy po istorii kraia (Voronezh, 1976); A. Iakovlev, Zasechnaia cherta Moskovskogo gosudarstva v XVII veke. Ocherk po istorii oborony iuzhnoi okrainy Moskovskogo gosudarstva (Moscow, 1916).

6. V.P. Zagorovskii, Belgorodskaia cherta (Voronezh, 1964).

7. Osmanskaia imperiia i strany Tsentral’noi, Vostochnoi i Iugo-Vostochnoi Evropy v XVII v., part 1 (Moscow, 1998); part 2 (Moscow, 2001); see, likewise, B.N. Floria, 50-e gg. XVII v. v istorii mezhdunarodnykh otnoshenii v tsentral’noi chasti Evrazii i zadachi publikatsii materialov o deiatel’nosti russkoi i ukrainskoi diplomatii v eti gody. Rossiiskaia i ukrainskaia diplomatiia v Evrazii. 50-3 gody XVII veka (Moscow, 2000).

8. D. Dorošenko, Hetman Petro Dorošenko (New York, 1985); M. Kunt, “17 yüzyilda Osmanli kuzey politikasi üzerinde bir yorum,” Bogaziçi Universitesi dergisi. Beşeri Belimler-Humanities 4–5 [This should be İ. Metin Kunt, “17. Yüzyılda Osmanlı Kuzey Politikası Üzerine Bir Yorum,” Bogaziçi Universitesi Dergisi (Beşeri Belimler-Humanities), vols. 4–5.—Trans.] (Istanbul, 1976–77), pp. 111–16; G.A. Sanin, Otnosheniia Rossii s Ukrainoi i Krymskim khanstvom v serednine XVII veka (Moscow, 1987); G.A. Sanin, “Russko-pol’skie otnosheniia 1667–1672 gg. i krymsko-turetskaia politika v Vostochnoi Evrope,” in Rossiia, Pol’sha i Prichernomor’e (Moscow, 1979), pp. 276–86.

9.. Abrahamowicz, “Die türkische Herrschaft in Podolien (1672–1699),” I. Actes du Première Congrès international des études balkaniques et sud-est europeenes, no. 3 (Sofia, 1966), pp. 777–80; II. Habsburgisch-osmanische Beziehungen (Vienna, 1985), pp. 187–92.

10. N.I. Kostomarov, Istoricheskie monografii i issledovaniia, book 2, vol. 15 (St. Petersburg, 1905).

11. D. Kołodziejczyk, Podole pod panowaniem tureckim. Ejalet Kamienicki; 1672–1699 (Warsaw, 1994).

12. See Z. Abrahamowicz, “Tło polityczne i ekonomichne wyprawy wiedenskiej Kara Mustaty,” Kwartalnik Historyczny, vol. 90, no. 1 (1983), p. 41.

13. N.A. Smirnov, Rossiia i Turtsiia v XVI–XVII vv., vol. 2 (Moscow, 1946), p. 146 (“461” [indicated] erroneously in the book).

14. Pis’ma i bumagi … Petra Velikogo, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1887), pp. 756–57.

15. Evliia Chelebi, Kniga puteshestvii [Evliya Çelebi, Seyâhatnâme (Book of Travel)], no. 2 (Moscow, 1979), p. 33.

16. Polnoe sobranie zakonov Rossiiskoi imperii (PSZ), I, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1830), no. 864.

17. Kara Mustafa vor Wien (Vienna, 1955), pp. 118–21; and likewise Z. Abrahamowicz, “Tł[o] polityczne,” p. 50.

18. See Osmanskaia imperiia … XVII v. (Moscow, 2001), pp. 24, 212.

19. See T.N. Kopreeva, “‘Vedomstvo zhelatel’nym liudiam’ (iz avtobiograficheskikh materialov A.L. Ordin-Nashchekina),” Arkheograficheskii ezhegodnik za 1964 g. (Moscow, 1965), pp. 333–49; T.N. Kopreeva, “Neizvestnye zapiski A.L. Ordin-Nashchekina o russko-pol’skikh otnosheniiakh vtoroi poloviny XVIII v.,” Problemy istochnikovedeniia, IX (Moscow, 1961), pp. 191–220.

20. J.W. Zinkeisen, Geschichte des Osmanischen Reiches in Europa, vol. 5 (Gotha, 1856), pp. 87–116.

21. PSZ, I, vol. 2, no. 1186; I.B. Grekov, “Moskovsko-pol’skii dogovor 1686 g. o Soiuze i ‘Vechnom mire’,” Sovetskoe slavianovedenie, 1987, no. 3, pp. 27–43.

22. L.V. Cherepnin, “Sobor 1642 g. po voprosu ob Azove,” in Rossiia, Pol’sha i Prichernomor’e v XV–XVIII vv. (Moscow, 1979), pp. 211–22; B.N. Floria, “K istorii russko-osmanskikh otnoshenii v seredine 40-kh gg. XVII v.,” Études balcaniques, 1991, no. 2.

23. M.M. Bogoslovskii, Petr I. Materialy dlia biografii., vol. 1 (Moscow, 1940).

24. Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv drevnikh aktov (RGADA), f. 89, op. 1, kn. 23, 24, 25.

25. See Pamiatniki diplomaticheskikh snoshenii drevnei Rossii s derzhavami inostrannymi, vol. VIII, IX (St. Petersburg, 1864, 1868); Bogoslovskii, Petr I, vol. 3, 5 (Moscow, 1948).

26. PSZ, vol. 5, no. 2687; L.A. Nikiforov, “Formirovanie rossiisko-turetskoi granitsy v pervoi chetverti XVIII v.,” in Formirovanie granits Rossii s Turtsiei i Iranom. XVIII–nachalo XX vv. (Moscow, 1972), pp. 62–88.

27. L.A. Nikiforov, Vneshniaia politika Rossii v poslednie gody Severnoi voiny. Nishtadtskii mir. (Moscow, 1959); V.P. Lystsov, Persidskii pokhod Petra I (Moscow, 1950).

28. A.K. Baiov, Russkaia armiia v tsarstvovanie imperatritsy Anny Ioannovny. Voina Rossii s Turtsiei v 1736–1739 gg. (St. Petersburg, 1906), p. 199.

29. PSZ, vol. 10, no. 7900.

30. G.A. Nekrasov, Rol’ Rossii v evropeiskoi mezhdunarodnoi politike 1725–1739 (Moscow, 1970); R. Mikhneva, Rossiia i Osmanskaia imperiia v mezhdunarodnykh otnosheniiakh XVIII veka (Moscow, 1985).

31. A. Vandal, Une ambassade française en Orient sous Louis XV. La mission du Marquis de Villeneuve 1728–1741 (Paris, 1887); A.F. Miller, Kratkaia istoriia Turtsii (Moscow, 1948), p. 30.

32. See H. İnalcık, “Imtiyāzāt,” in Encyclopedia of Islam, vol. III (Leiden, 1971), pp. 1,179–88.

33. G.A. Sanin, “Granitsy Rossii i Krymskogo khanstva vo vtoroi polovine XVII–pervoi polovine XVIII vv.,” in Problemy istorii i arkheologii Kryma (Simferopol, 1994), pp. 146–69.

34. V.P. Zagorovskii, Iziumskaia cherta (Voronezh, 1980); O.M. Apanovich, Zbroïny syly Ukrayni pershoi polovynı XVIII st. (Kiev, 1969), pp. 158–68; N.A. Satavov, Severnyi Kavkaz v russko-iranskikh i russko-turetskikh otnosheniiakh XVIII v. (Moscow, 1991).

35. Apanovich, Zbroïny syly, pp. 167, 168; A. Skal’kovskii, Istoriia Novoi Sechi ili poslednego kosha zaporozhskogo, vol. 1 (Odessa, 1846); A.P. Bazhova, Russko-iugoslavskie otnosheniia vo vtoroi polovine XVIII v. (Moscow, 1982), pp. 128–50; E.I. Druzhinina, “Granitsy Rossii s Turtsiei po Kiuchuk-Kainardzhiiskomu dogovoru 10 iiulia 1774 i Iasskomu dogovoru 29 dekabria 1791,” in Formirovanie granits, pp. 134–37.

36. Cit. in E.I. Druzhinina, Kiuchuk-Kainardzhiiskii mir 1774 goda (ego podgotovka i zakliuchenie) (Moscow, 1955), pp. 65, 66.

37. N.D. Chechulin, Vneshniaia politika Rossii v nachale tsarstvovaniia Ekateriny II. 1762–1774. (St. Petersburg, 1896); A. Petrov, Voina Rossii s Turtsiei i pol’skimi konfederatami, vols. 1–5 (St. Petersburg, 1866–1874); Mémoires du baron de Toff, vol. 2 (Amsterdam, 1785), pp. 144–54; T. Munt, “Krym-Girei—soiuznik Fridrikha Velikogo: Prolog stolknovenii mezhdu Rossiei i Turtsiei,” Izvestiia Tavricheskoi uchenoi arkhivnoi komissii, 1909, no. 43, pp. 1–87; S.M. Solov’ev, Sochineniia, book XIV, vol. 28 (Moscow, 1994), p. 276.

38. Arkhiv Gosudarstvennogo Soveta, vol. 1 (St. Petersburg, 1869), p. 44.

39. Druzhinina, Kiuchuk-Kainardzhiiskii mir, p. 110; Arkhiv Gosudarstvennogo Soveta, vol. 1, p. 43.

40. PSZ, I, vol. 19, no. 14164; Druzhinina, Kiuchuk-Kainardzhiiskii mir, p. 351.

41. V.D. Smirnov, Krymskoe khanstvo pod verkhovenstvom Otomanskoi Porty do nachala XVIII v. (St. Petersburg, 1886), p. 715; F.F. Lashkov, Shagin-Girei, poslednii krymskii khan (Simferopol, 1991), pp. 21–26 (this work was first published in the magazine Kievskaia starina, no. 9, 1886).

42. Smirnov, Krymskoe khanstvo, pp. 30, 195, 228; Russkii arkhiv, 1884, book 2, pp. 1–20; Solov’ev, Sochineniia, book XV, vol. 29, p. 98; Lashkov, Shagin-Girei, p. 30; PSZ, vol. 21, no. 1591.

43. A.M. Stanislavskaia, “Angliia i Rossiia v gody vtoroi turetskoi voiny (1787–1791),” Voprosy istorii, 1948, no. 11, pp. 26–49; L.G. Beskrovnyi, Russkaia armiia i flot v XVIII veke (Moscow, 1958); PSZ, vol. 23, no. 17008.

44. See E.I. Druzhinina, Severnoe Prichernomor’e v 1775–1800 gg. (Moscow, 1959); E.I. Druzhinina, Iuzhnaia Ukraina v 1800–1825 gg. (Moscow, 1970).

45. Solov’ev, Sochineniia, book XVI (Moscow, 1995), pp. 633, 634, 665.

46. M.N. Tikhomirov, Istoricheskie sviazi Rossii so slavianskimi stranami i Vizantiei (Moscow, 1969), p. 59; Druzhinina, Kiuchuk-Kainardzhiiskii mir, p. 332.

47. Istoriia Severo-Osetinskoi ASSR (Moscow, 1959), pp. 135, 136.

48. Rossiia. Dogovory. Georgievskii traktat. Dogovor 1783 g. o vstuplenii Vostochnoi Gruzii pod pokrovitel’stvo Rossii (Tbilisi, 1983); G.G. Paichadze, Georgievskii traktat (Tbilis, 1983); G. Kikodze, Iraklii II (Tbilisi, 1948).

49. A.V. Fadeev, Rossiia i vostochnyi krizis 20-s godov XIX v. (Moscow, 1958), pp. 106, 107; S.S. Tatishchev, Iz proshlogo rossiiskoi diplomatii (St. Petersburg, 1890), pp. 299, 300); Solov’ev, Sochineniia, book XVI, p. 665; N.K. Shil’der, Adrianopol’skii mir 1829 goda. Iz perepiski grafa Dibicha (St. Petersburg, 1879), p. 34.

50. S. Tatishchev, Vneshniaia politika imperatora Nikolaia I (St. Petersburg, 1887); A.P. Zabolotskii-Desiatovskii, Graf P.D. Kiselev i ego vremia, vol. I (St. Petersburg, 1882).

51. Cit. in Rossiia, Tsar’grad i prolivy (Petrograd, 1915), p. 51; F.M. Dostoevskii, Dnevnik pisatelia za 1878 g., p. 74; B.N. Chicherin, Vospominaniia. Zemstvo i Moskovskaia Duma. (Moscow, 1934), pp. 74, 80; K. Leont’ev, “Vostok, Rossiia i slavianstvo,” in Sobranie sochinenii, vol. I (St. Petersburg, 1881), pp. 8–9.

52. Solov’ev, Sochineniia, book XVI, p. 634.

53. An expression of V.P. Riabushinskii’s. See Foreword [Predislovie] to the anthology “Velikaia Rossiia” (Moscow, 1911), book 2, p. 5.

54. Cho zhdet Rossiia ot voiny (Petrograd, 1915), pp. 50–62.

55. Problemy Velikoi Rossii (Moscow, 1916), no. 1, p. 8.

56. Rossiia, Tsar’grad i prolivy, p. 1.