Music in early childhood teacher education: raising awareness of a worrisome reality and proposing strategies to move forward

Abstract

This position paper aims to raise awareness among educational policymakers, teacher educators, and school leaders around the world about the urgent need to better prepare Early Childhood Education (ECE) teachers in music education. Most countries fail to sufficiently train teachers to meet the music-related expectations of contemporary ECE curricula, which inevitably affects young children’s learning and development. Our first goal is to describe this worrisome reality in depth, based on prior literature. We elaborate on the limited music education (extracurricular, pre-service, and in-service) typically offered to ECE teachers worldwide. We then highlight the negative consequences that result from having a teaching force clearly ill-prepared in this area. Based on studies conducted with pre-service and/or in-service ECE teachers, we summarize what is known about teachers’ learning needs, motivations, and preferences regarding music education. Our second goal is to propose a series of low-cost, sustainable, and easily scalable strategies to strengthen teachers’ preparation. Practical and policy-related potential obstacles are discussed. As final remarks, we urge ECE stakeholders to (a) investigate the specific needs, motivations, and preferences of their local teachers in music education, (b) design and implement responsive training strategies, and (c) examine their impact on teachers and/or children.

Keywords:

• Early Childhood Education
• music education
• curriculum
• teacher education
• professional development
• training strategies

1. Introduction

The vital importance of music in education has been recognized for centuries, beginning with classic philosophers such as Aristotle, Pythagoras, and Plato. Today, educational researchers, policymakers, and curriculum designers around the world concur that music education should be provided to young children from the earliest stages of their development (Beaver et al., 2017; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019; Putkinen et al., 2015). This is due to numerous reasons. Music education is important in itself because music is an integral part of the cultural heritage of societies (Young & Ilari, 2019). Additionally, there is compelling evidence that music engagement enhances our sensory, cognitive, emotional, and motor skills, which are the driving forces behind all learning (Bamberger, 2018; Williams et al., 2015). Furthermore, engagement in music provides children with multiple benefits such as improved motivation and self-esteem, problem solving, decision making, autonomy, self and cultural awareness, and appreciation of diversity (Ilari, 2018; Magsamen & Battro, 2011; Zadnik & Habe, 2017).

For these reasons, music is regarded as a key learning area in curriculum frameworks around the world, particularly during Early Childhood Education (ECE) (e.g., Boletín Oficial del Estado (BOE), 2006; Curriculum Development Council (CDC), 2017; New York State Education Department (NYSED), 2019). Contemporary ECE curricula encourage teachers to implement music activities daily (Barrett et al., 2021). Activity types commonly recommended include singing, music appreciation, responding to beats and rhythms with movement, exploring timbre and sound effects with conventional and unconventional instruments, improvization and creation with sound and body movements, and integrated learning activities (Beaver et al., 2017; Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019). Curriculum frameworks argue that, beyond using music as a classroom management tool (e.g., routines, fillers, transitions), the ultimate purpose of music education is to allow young children to express their feelings and unleash their creativity, thereby contributing to foster their holistic development. However, music education practices in ECE settings—both in Western countries (Ersoy & Dere, 2012; Garvis, 2012; Neokleous, 2010) and Eastern countries (Bautista et al., 2018; Chen-Hafteck & Zhuoya, 2008; Lau & Grieshaber, 2018)—seldom reflect the vision outlined in curriculum frameworks.

2. Aim and goals

This position paper aims to raise awareness among educational policymakers, teacher educators, and school leaders about the urgent need to better prepare ECE teachers in music education. With limited exceptions, such as Japan (Holloway & Yamamoto, 2003), countries have traditionally failed to recruit and/or train professionals that are able to meet the music-related objectives and expectations of curriculum guidelines, which has unavoidably affected the musical learning and development of countless generations of children (Trainor, 2005).

The study has two goals. The first one is to depict this worrisome reality in depth, based on international studies focusing on ECE teachers’ preparation, difficulties, and training demands in music education. The second goal is to propose a series of low-cost, sustainable, and easily scalable strategies to move forward and strengthen ECE teachers’ preparation in music education, ultimately intended to enhance music teaching and learning in ECE settings. As final remarks, we urge ECE stakeholders to (a) investigate the specific needs, motivations, and preferences of their local teachers in music education, (b) design and implement responsive training strategies, and (c) examine their impact on teachers and/or children.

3. Music in early childhood teacher education: A worrisome reality

To address the first goal of this paper, this section is divided into three sub-sections.

First, we elaborate on the limited music education training typically offered to ECE teachers around the world—including extracurricular, pre-service, and in-service training. Second, we highlight the negative consequences that result from having ECE teachers who are clearly ill-prepared in music education. Finally, based on studies conducted with pre-service and/or in-service ECE teachers, we summarize what is known about teachers’ learning needs, motivations, and preferences regarding music education.

3.1. Why are ECE teachers worldwide ill-prepared to teach music?

Studies conducted in a wide range of countries and jurisdictions around the world—such as United States (Baum, 2017; Hash, 2010), Australia (Barrett et al., 2019), Brazil (Ilari, 2007), Greece (Koutsoupidou, 2010), Kenya (Andang’o & Mugo, 2007), Taiwan (Liao & Campbell, 2016), and Hong Kong (Chen-Hafteck & Zhuoya, 2008; Lau & Grieshaber, 2018)—have documented the limited preparation of ECE teachers in the area of music education. There are multiple causes at the root of this problem.

One of the main causes is the weak foundation in general music developed prior to enrolling in teacher preparation programs, as part of compulsory education and/or extracurricular musical activities (e.g., music fundamentals, instrumental lessons, community music such as bands, ensembles, choirs). For example, a study conducted with 108 Greek ECE student teachers found that 75% of them had no music background whatsoever and that only a minority had participated in music courses during Secondary school (Koutsoupidou, 2010). Similarly, a study based on 46 Australian kindergarten teachers found that 46% of them never learned how to sing or play musical instruments, which resulted in difficulties in conducting music activities with children (Barrett et al., 2019). Consistent findings have been reported in a survey study conducted with 1,019 Hong Kong kindergarten teachers (Bautista & Ho, 2022). It was found that only around half of the sample had learned how to play a musical instrument, sing, and/or dance for at least two years, and that teachers with lower educational qualifications were less likely to have had such prior music education experiences.

Another cause relates to the limited provision of music education courses within ECE teacher preparation programs, which are mainly designed to train generalists. Many universities and colleges offer no music training whatsoever to prospective ECE teachers (Altinkaynak et al., 2012; Chan & Leong, 2007; Kim & Kemple, 2011; Lenzo, 2014). Certain programs offer courses that integrate music with other art forms (e.g., visual arts, dance, drama), or that include music as part of generic creativity courses (Lau & Grieshaber, 2018). The best-case scenario are programs that offer one semester-long music education course, be it compulsory (García Gil et al., 2021) or optional (Rajan, 2017; Suthers, 2008). This exposure is not nearly enough to develop pre-service teachers’ musical knowledge and skills, let alone inspire their confidence to conduct creativity-fostering music activities with children once they enter the professional world (Ebbeck et al., 2008; Neokleous, 2010).

A third issue relates to the low quality and limited applicability of certain pre-service music courses. In studies carried out in United States (Rajan, 2017), England (Young, 2007), Greece (Koutsoupidou, 2010), and Hong Kong (Bautista & Ho, 2021), ECE teachers have criticized pre-service courses for being too short, overly theoretical or abstract, and for lacking practical opportunities—for example, opportunities to observe how seasoned educators teach music to young children, to implement music activities in real classrooms, or to engage in creativity-fostering music activities. Research conducted in Turkey has identified the need to improve the teaching methods, materials, equipment, and assessment procedures utilized in pre-service courses (Ekici & Bilen, 2010). In New Zealand, Anderson (2005) described the case of a prospective teacher whose lecturer required her to play a musical instrument publicly on the first day of class, and subsequently criticized her negatively in front of her peers. The feelings of insecurity that first began during her pre-service course continued to affect this teacher’s confidence with music nearly 20 years later.

Finally, the provision of music-specific professional development (PD) for in-service ECE teachers tends to be limited around the world (Bautista et al., 2016; Lenzo, 2014; Yim & Ebbeck, 2011). This is typically due to factors such the lack of importance attributed to music education (Barrett et al., 2019), the existence of alternative training priorities (Bautista et al., 2016), the lack of locally relevant teaching materials and resources (Barrett et al., 2021), the limited number of specialized PD providers (Ebbeck et al., 2008), and the impossibility of schools to hire substitutes to cover for teachers participating in PD (Lenzo, 2014). In Hong Kong, Bautista and Ho (2021) have reported the existence of little-to-no school or government support to foster kindergarten teachers’ continuous learning in music education. When teachers want to participate in PD, they often need to so during their personal time and pay from their own pockets, which seems unreasonable considering that these professionals have long working hours and are often underpaid (Lenzo, 2014). Music education is one of the top learning areas in which ECE teachers need PD support (Bautista et al., 2016), hence it seems obvious that this situation must be urgently tackled by the relevant stakeholders.

3.2. What are the consequences of ECE teachers’ lack of preparation to teach music?

The widespread lack of preparation of ECE teachers in music education leads to a series of interrelated negative consequences, affecting both teachers and young children. Firstly, insufficient preparation results in teachers overlooking—or even underestimating—the importance of music for child development and learning, attributing music a secondary role as compared to other learning areas (e.g., language, literacy, numeracy), and therefore allocating it little curriculum time (Kim & Kemple, 2011; Winton & Bussye, 2005). For example, teachers in countries like Australia (Barrett et al., 2019) and Singapore (Bautista et al., 2016) consider music to be one of the least important learning areas, being seen simply as a tool to teach in a more fun and engaging way, or even as rather unnecessary. In fact, researchers have reported a significant reduction in the time devoted to music in ECE settings (Barry & Durham, 2017; Baum, 2017). In certain classrooms, music is mainly or even exclusively used during daily routines, to manage transitions, and to fill gaps between lessons; activities specifically designed to foster musical learning are rare (Barrett et al., 2021; Bautista et al., 2018).

Lack of preparation also inevitably results in teachers having insufficient knowledge, skills, and pedagogical competencies to teach music, which often affects their confidence and self-efficacy beliefs (Burak, 2019). Teachers may feel insecure while teaching music to children (Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014) and even face severe anxiety in extreme cases (Neokleous, 2010). Researchers in Turkey (Altinkaynak et al., 2012), China (Chen-Hafteck & Zhuoya, 2008), and Australia (Barrett et al., 2019) have primarily alluded to ECE teachers’ deficit on basic music theory knowledge and instrumental skills. To compensate such deficit, teachers tend to resort to activities aligned with their own musical strengths (i.e., “natural talents”), which may or may not contribute to achieve the objectives of ECE curricula (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019).

There is evidence that preschool educators mainly focus on singing songs, but frequently not for music’s sake but as a means to teach children about other learning areas and/or to introduce new vocabulary (Garvis, 2012; Liao & Campbell, 2016; Young, 2007). Some teachers also teach about basic musical elements and concepts (e.g., beat, rhythm, melody, dynamics) (Lau & Grieshaber, 2018). However, they rarely pose instrumental music activities or projects that involve exploration, improvization, or creation with sound (Bautista et al., 2018; Ersoy & Dere, 2012). There is also evidence that teachers have difficulties to embed music as part of integrated learning activities (Lau & Grieshaber, 2018). Furthermore, the pedagogical approach to music most used in ECE settings—both in Western and Eastern countries—has been characterized as reproductive and teacher-centered, hence not conducive to foster children’s creativity and self-expression (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019).

Given teachers’ lack of music preparation, many ECE centers in countries such as the United States hire external instructors or teaching artists to lead music lessons. While some experiences with external instructors may be positive and enjoyable, for children and teacher alike, they are not without challenges (Bautista et al., 2021). External instructors and teaching artists are typically music majors, who are seldom trained in ECE or child development. Because their positions are normally part-time, they come to school for a limited time (e.g., one or two days per week) and have few opportunities to interact with children and understand their interests, motivations, and needs. Consequently, these instructors may not be in the best position to teach music to children. Engaging external instructors may also result in music being taught in isolation from the other learning areas, which is inconsistent with the principles of curriculum integration—globally accepted nowadays in the ECE field (Beaver et al., 2017). External music instructors often feel like outsiders in schools, as they are not expected to collaborate with the other teachers to plan and implement curriculum together. All these factors may negatively affect the quality of the music teaching provided to young children by these specialists (Bautista et al., 2021).

These teacher-related issues unavoidably impact children’s development and learning. Children’s limited and oftentimes superficial exposure to musical experiences is concerning because many musical competencies (e.g., auditory and perceptual skills, sense of beat and rhythm, ability to sing in tune), as well as the cognitive functions required for music (e.g., self-regulatory skills, executive functions), are best developed and acquired during the early years (Putkinen et al., 2015; Williams, 2018). In fact, there is evidence to suggest that time of music engagement is associated with positive musical and extra-musical outcomes, which are observable in the short term (Herrera et al., 2007; Hogan et al., 2018) and in the mid-to-long term (Williams et al., 2015). Music is intrinsically important as an area of knowledge and form of art (Ehrlin & Gustavsson, 2015; Young & Ilari, 2019). As stated in contemporary ECE curricula (e.g., BOE, 2006; CDC, 2017; NYSED, 2019), music has the potential to foster not only children’s creativity and self-expression, but also their holistic and balanced development (Magsamen & Battro, 2011). However, the current status of music education in ECE settings (i.e., low quantity and, in many cases, low quality) prevents young children around the world to heap multiple benefits and positive outcomes associated with music education (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019).

3.3. What music education learning opportunities do ECE teachers demand?

Consistent with socio-constructivist theories of culturally responsive teaching (Gay, 2010), we consider that teachers’ own voices—needs, motivations, preferences, etc.—should be carefully taken into consideration when designing teacher learning initiatives, both pre-service and in-service (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). This ensures that the content, format, and design of such initiatives are coherent with and responsive to what teachers themselves demand (Desimone & Garet, 2015). In the following, we review the international research literature on pre- and in-service ECE teachers’ needs, motivations, and preferences regarding music education.

In terms of content knowledge and skills, research shows that ECE teachers feel the need to improve in numerous areas. A large-scale study conducted with early years educators from United States, Australia, Ireland, Namibia, and South Africa revealed their need to acquire more rigorous knowledge about music curriculum design, instrumental and singing skills, and pedagogical competencies to integrate music with other learning areas (Russell-Bowie, 2009). Similar findings have been identified in Asian societies, such as Hong Kong, where ECE teachers expressed the need to learn about basic music theory, as well as how to design and implement music appreciation activities (Bautista & Ho, 2021). Other key areas of need consistently identified relate to how to foster young children’s musical creativity and self-expression (Cheung, 2017; Young & Ilari, 2019), and how to introduce music improvization and composition in ECE classrooms (Ebbeck et al., 2008).

From a pedagogical standpoint, ECE teachers are highly motivated to engage in practical experiences of music teaching and learning, including micro-teaching activities (i.e., activities where teachers adopt the role of children) (Vannatta-Hall, 2010), live and video-mediated lesson observations in actual classrooms (Bautista et al., 2019; Koutsoupidou, 2010; Lenzo, 2014), and hands-on implementation of innovative lesson ideas (Barrett et al., 2021; Kos, 2018; Rajan, 2017). ECE teachers also highly value mentoring as a strategy to improve their music-specific pedagogies. In a study conducted in United States, pre-service teachers showed interest in planning and implementing music education curriculum alongside musical novices and accomplished musicians, to gain exposure to different teaching methodologies (Barry & Durham, 2017). In Taiwan, Chen (2000) found that pairing pre-service teachers and experienced in-service teachers was effective to improve music education practices, as the collaboration allowed the former to better connect theory and practice. Mentoring by content specialists (e.g., musicians, curriculum designers, artists, music pedagogs) is a collaborative learning activity highly valued by ECE teachers in Australia (Barrett et al., 2019). Finally, peer-mentoring activities where teachers co-design lessons and/or practice new teaching skills have been found to be highly valued by preschool teachers in Singapore (Múñez et al., 2017).

ECE teachers highly value participating in work-embedded music education PD, preferably during working hours (Bautista & Ho, 2021). They also value participating in PD initiatives outside ECE centers, like music seminars, workshops, symposia, and conferences (Rajan, 2017; West, 2020). However, these one-off PD initiatives are perceived to be less effective than work-embedded PD and have a lower impact on teachers’ self-efficacy (Múñez et al., 2017). Online PD specific to music education is also highly valued, as teachers can flexibly use electronic resources such as e-lesson plans, video lecturers, and demonstrations at their own convenience (Lenzo, 2014). Yim and Ebbeck (2011) investigated the preferred music learning activities of ECE teachers in Hong Kong and Australia. Activities such as practicing music performance skills, discussing music-related topics with colleagues, attending music-related workshops/conferences, reading books/articles/website, and watching music-related videos/TV programs were highly valued by teachers in both contexts. Finally, ECE teachers throughout the world have expressed their need to receive financial support to attend music-specific PD and to purchase additional materials and resources (e.g., instruments, music CD’s, curriculum packages) (Barrett et al., 2021; Chan & Leong, 2007; Rajan, 2017).

4. Proposed strategies to strengthen ECE teachers’ preparation in music education

The second goal of this paper is to propose strategies to strengthen teachers’ preparation and enhance music teaching and learning in ECE settings. There is widespread agreement that the quality of an education system cannot be higher than the quality of its teachers (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). In view of the worrisome reality described in the prior section, we believe it is imperative to identify low-cost, sustainable, and easily scalable strategies to help the field move forward. In the following, we offer suggestions for teacher educators within higher education institutions, school leaders within ECE settings, as well as PD providers and educational policymakers within governments.

First, universities and colleges could take multiple measures to increase the quantity and quality of students’ exposure to music education, given the limited curriculum time typically allotted to this area in teacher training programs (Altinkaynak et al., 2012; García Gil et al., 2021; Suthers, 2008). Acquiring the knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to teach music to young children takes years of study, practice, observation, and reflection (Vannatta-Hall, 2010). For this reason, rather than offering music education in the format of standard courses, it would be more strategic to divide the provision available into short modules, spread throughout the teacher education program. The role of music teacher educators would significantly change in this paradigm. Rather than delivering a fixed curriculum to all students in a specific cohort, they would seek opportunities to engage all student teachers in the program with music learning activities, both formally and informally (Naughton & Lines, 2013). For example, this could involve the creation of music clubs where students with music background coach untrained peers in basic instrumental or singing techniques, different music ensembles or choirs that perform in school events, or groups interested in creative composition and improvization projects.

One strategy could be to identify, at the very beginning of teacher education programs, those students with formal musical training and partner them with their untrained peers. Another strategy could be to partnering ECE student teachers with students majoring in music or music education. ECE students would benefit by gaining music content knowledge and skills, and in turn, they would share their knowledge about child development and curriculum design with their music counterparts. Some of these collaborations could be presented as compulsory to satisfy the music education credits, where others could be offered as voluntary and ungraded activities. These various peer-learning systems would offer opportunities for students to collaborate with and learn from one another (Bainger, 2010). Lecturers would play an important role in disseminating information about the different peer-learning systems, motivating students to participate, providing mentorship and support, and facilitating the logistics of the various music making and music pedagogy activities conducted (Barrett et al., 2019; Chen, 2000). We acknowledge that this approach to early childhood music teacher education could be significantly more difficult to plan, implement, and evaluate than the traditional course-based approach. Indeed, this approach would surely create practical challenges for the various stakeholders involved, especially regarding the assessment of students’ learning, as each student could be potentially involved in different music activities and, hence, the level of standardization would be lower. However, the long-term benefits would be significant. Being practical, hands-on, student led, and somewhat informal, this approach would foster students’ active and sustained engagement in music making and music pedagogy activities, which could lead to higher confidence, sense of empowerment, self-efficacy, and subsequently would make a difference in the classroom (Ebbeck et al., 2008; Neokleous, 2010; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014).

It would also be important for universities and colleges to establish partnerships with ECE centers that offer high-quality music education, and provide students with opportunities to observe, analyze, and reflect on such practices (Greher, 2011). In some parts of the world (e.g., Brazil), public universities offer independent and high-quality early music education programs for the surrounding communities (Ilari, 2010). These programs can also provide opportunities for pre-service teachers to practice teaching music to young children. One obvious obstacle is that these centers and programs normally cannot trained large numbers of students. The health risks associated with having outside visitors, due to the current COVID-19 pandemic, is another obstacle. To overcome these potential difficulties, a sensible tradeoff would be developing video repositories of high-quality practices, which could be used within the context of pre-service music modules or courses (Bautista et al., 2019). These video repositories would be a valuable resource, allowing students to visualize the connection between music education curriculum and pedagogy. Expert committees of music teacher educators and experienced pedagogs could be established for quality assurance purposes (Chua & Tan, 2021). They would ensure the variety and quality of approaches featured in the videos, thereby reducing the opportunity cost of this strategy. The establishment of school-university partnerships and the development of video repositories would guarantee that ECE majors are exposed to various models of practice within their own local setting, and potentially within regional and international settings as well, with the mediation of video technologies (Wallbaum, 2018). Subsequently, they should be provided with guided opportunities to try out lesson ideas in real settings, tailoring them to the reality of their own practicum ECE centers.

School leaders (i.e., principal, vice-principal, senior teachers) play a central role in facilitating the induction to the teaching profession of beginning teachers; hence, they must be mindful of beginners’ low level of self-efficacy with music and ensure appropriate conditions to develop it further (Kim & Choy, 2008; Neokleous, 2010). It is essential to guarantee time and spaces for beginning teachers to engage in mentoring and peer observation activities, both formally and informally, to gradually scaffold the development of their music-specific pedagogical skills (Barrett et al., 2019). It is also important for school leaders to provide the conditions for work-embedded learning, both collaborative and individual (Múñez et al., 2017). Both beginning and experienced teachers would highly benefit from sharing music education topics with one another (e.g., music-specific pedagogies, innovative activities, knowledge about children’s reactions, concerns about teaching problems) (Yim & Ebbeck, 2011). These forms of informal learning are less costly and more easily accessible and sustainable over time than formal music education PD courses. ECE policies might therefore consider more flexible working schedules, with protected time to facilitate sustained teacher collaboration (Chen, 2000). We acknowledge that this change may be difficult to achieve, especially in systems where ECE centers are run by private or commercial operators (Kagan, 2019). Raising the awareness of school leaders about the importance of this matter is therefore crucial.

Governments and education ministries are in the best position to offer high-quality formal PD in music education to ECE in-service teachers, via official PD providers in each nation or jurisdiction (e.g., teachers training bodies, universities, professional associations, commercial providers). Teachers increasingly attend formal PD initiatives to meet requirements from publicly funded ECE programs, which may be delivered face-to-face, online, or in a hybrid mode (Egert et al., 2018). Educational policymakers could consider organizing early childhood music education conferences, professional workshops, or seminars, which have proven useful for in-service teachers (West, 2020). However, these types of formal PD have disadvantages (e.g., high cost, short duration, lack of follow-up support, restrictions related to time and physical location, unsustainability), hence are somewhat impractical to benefit ECE teachers at scale (Lenzo, 2014). To overcome the limitations of face-to-face PD, policymakers may capitalize on the affordances and advantages of online technologies (i.e., flexibility, accessibility, affordability, scalability) (Dede et al., 2009; Philipsen et al., 2019) and provide early childhood practitioners with online and blended music education PD (Lenzo, 2014). Large-scale seminars, workshops, courses, conferences, mentoring programs, etc. could be offered virtually to reach out to high numbers of participants and disseminate the latest developments in the field widely. Online and blended PD initiatives are cost-efficient and more sustainable than face-to-face initiatives and can provide practitioners with tools to cyclically evaluate, assess, and improve their music pedagogies, as has been shown with teachers of other educational levels (e.g., Stanley et al., 2014).

Finally, we recommend countries to design virtual platforms to foster the emergence of online Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) (Lock, 2006), through which ECE teachers (both pre- and in-service) can further improve themselves in the various learning areas, including music education. These virtual platforms may range from local websites to national or even international platforms. They should allow ECE practitioners to communicate with one another (e.g., through discussion forums, chats, e-mail messages), both synchronously and a-synchronously, and share their knowledge and pedagogical resources (e.g., music curriculum materials, e-lesson plans, video demonstrations, music tracks). Such platforms would be ideal to reinforce center-based informal PD, as described above, allowing ECE teachers to interact with peers beyond their immediate circle (e.g., teachers from other schools, districts, regions, countries), and with other music education stakeholders (e.g., music specialists, performers, teacher educators, PD providers, researchers) (Bautista et al., 2021). Virtual platforms and online PLCs would allow ECE teachers to become the architects of their own music-specific PD (Schmidt & Robbins, 2011), engaging in self-directed interactions and exchanges with other professionals for the enhancement of music teaching and learning in ECE settings. Key obstacles relate to potential difficulties in securing sufficient funds for high-quality PD in music education, an area that commonly “gets the short end of the stick”, as well as the recruitment and/or training of the right professionals to facilitate such PD.

5. Summary and final remarks

In this position paper, we have reviewed specific bodies of literature to raise awareness among policymakers, teacher educators, and school leaders of the need to better prepare ECE teachers in music education.

In response to our first goal, we have shown that countries around the world often fail to provide ECE teachers with a solid preparation in this area, as the quantity and quality of music pre-service courses and PD initiatives tends to be low. This lack of preparation leads to a series of interrelated negative consequences for teachers (e.g., knowledge deficit, lack of confidence, poor pedagogical practices), which inevitably affect young children (e.g., limited and superficial musical learning, unachieved curriculum objectives, unbalanced development). We have also reviewed the research literature on ECE teachers’ needs, motivations, and preferences regarding music education. ECE teachers feel the need to improve in numerous areas such as basic music theory, instrumental and singing skills, pedagogies to foster children’s musical creativity and self-expression, and competences to integrate music with other learning areas. They are highly motivated to engage in learning opportunities that are practical, for example live and video-mediated lesson observations, design and implementation of innovative lesson ideas, and micro-teaching. While teachers value formal PD initiatives outside ECE centers (e.g., seminars, workshops, symposia, and conferences), they prefer work-embedded forms of collaborative PD (e.g., mentoring, peer-feedback, discussions). Online learning resources (e.g., e-lesson plans, video lecturers, demonstrations) are also perceived to be very useful.

In view of this worrisome reality, our second goal was to suggest possible strategies to enhance the teaching and learning of music within ECE settings. Pre-service and in-service teachers urgently need more opportunities for music making, skill practice, pedagogical observation and analysis, guided practice, and collaboration. To this end, the proposed strategies would require the action of teacher educators, school leaders, and policymakers. We have argued that universities and colleges should take innovative measures to increase the quantity and quality of students’ exposure to music education, including the establishment of partnerships with ECE centers offering high-quality music education, so that all students can observe and analyze good examples of practice (in person/live or through video). Leaders of ECE centers have been urged to provide all teachers—especially beginners—with formal and informal PD opportunities in music education, allowing them time and space to engage in mentoring, peer observation, and work-embedded collaborative learning. We have argued that governments must urgently offer high-quality music education PD. Moreover, we have strongly recommended the design of virtual platforms to foster the emergence of online PLCs. Needless to say, ECE teachers would be required to play an active role to benefit from these strategies and improve themselves as music educators. The strategies proposed are neither exhaustive nor comprehensive, but they aim to suggest cost-efficient, sustainable, and scalable ways to support ECE teachers in music education and help the field move forward. We are cognoscenti of practical and policy-related obstacles, opportunity costs, and tradeoffs of the various strategies suggested, as outlined earlier.

Teacher learning involves multiple processes, actions, and mechanisms mediated by cultural, social, and political factors; hence, it would be unwise to blindly adopt training strategies without scrutinizing the characteristics of each ECE system (Kagan, 2019). ECE researchers in each country or jurisdiction should therefore investigate the specific needs, motivations, and preferences of their local teachers, and subsequently design and implement responsive training strategies (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017; Desimone & Garet, 2015). Furthermore, researchers should also conduct studies to measure the impact on such training strategies, both on teachers (e.g., musical knowledge, skills, confidence, pedagogical competencies) and children (e.g., musical competencies, creativity, self-expression, holistic development). This body of research would be essential for teacher educators, school leaders, and policymakers to understand how best to support ECE teachers in music education, for the benefit of young children (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2019).

We end this paper with a cautionary tale. As the world begins its recovery from the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, a major concern is with children’s academic losses during these difficult times. If history is to repeat itself, we are likely to see some heightened attention given to literacy and numeracy in ECE worldwide, and in many cases, to the detriment of other areas such as music and the arts. While we acknowledge the importance of literacy and numeracy in young children’s education, we also see an urgent need for music education in the post-pandemic world. As noted in the beginning of this paper, music education has a central role in children’s development and growth. Music is also a powerful form of emotional expression, self-regulation, and social bonding in the early years. We therefore believe that the time is ripe to invest in the music education of ECE teachers worldwide.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This study was supported by the project “Arts and Creativity in Hong Kong Kindergartens: Towards Glocal Pedagogies” (grant #04592) funded by the Department of Early Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong Kong. The views expressed herein are the authors’ and do not necessarily represent the views of their institution.

Notes on contributors

Alfredo Bautista

Alfredo Bautista is Associate Professor and Associate Head (Internationalization) in the Department of Early Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong Kong. He is interested in the analysis of instructional practices, teacher professional development, and the factors that influence curriculum and pedagogy in early childhood settings, particularly in music and the arts.

Jerry Yeung

Jerry Yeung is PhD Student in the Department of Early Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong Kong. Trained as a kindergarten teacher, Jerry is interested in arts and creativity and teacher professional development within early childhood education settings. He has been recently awarded a doctoral scholarship by the Hong Kong PhD Fellowship Scheme (HKPFS).

Morgan Lisa Mclaren

Morgan L. Mclaren works as a kindergarten teacher in Victoria Education Organization (Hong Kong). She has recently completed her Post-Graduate Diploma in Early Childhood Education at The Education University of Hong Kong. She also holds a Bachelor’s of Science from the State University of New York at Oneonta (United States).

Beatriz Ilari

Beatriz Ilari is Associate Professor of Music Education at the University of Southern California where she teaches graduate courses in music psychology, the sociology of music, and research methods. She has conducted extensive research with babies, preschoolers, and school-aged children. Beatriz’s research uses a variety of approaches to study different aspects of musical development and growth of infants, children, and adolescents.