International Law and the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict: Actual Problems and Challenges

Abstract

Cultural property may be under serious threat in the event of armed conflict. In the twentieth century, there were clear developments in international law aimed at preventing and punishing war crimes against cultural property. Despite this, the destruction of cultural property during armed conflict has continued. This article questions whether the existing international law standards with regard to the protection of cultural property during armed conflict are satisfactory, and whether or not a new instrument could be valuable. Although considerable shortcomings remain, instead of pleading for a new instrument, this article advocates raising ratification rates, the enhancement of the implementation of existing instruments, and monitoring and sanctioning mechanisms.

Keywords:

• armed conflict
• cultural property
• international law

Notes

1. Instructions for the Government of Armies of the United States in the Field (Lieber Code), adopted April 24, 1863, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/110?OpenDocument

2. Brussels Declaration, Brussels, adopted August 27, 1874, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/WebART/135–70009?OpenDocument

3. The Laws of War on Land, adopted September 9, 1880, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/140?OpenDocument

4. Convention (IV) Respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land and its Annex: Regulations Concerning the Laws and Customs of War on Land, adopted October 18, 1907, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/195?OpenDocument

5. Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, adopted May 14, 1954, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/400?OpenDocument

6. Protocol for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, adopted May 14, 1954, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/410?OpenDocument

7. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Convention of August 12, 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of International Armed Conflicts (Protocol I), adopted June 9. 1977, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/470?OpenDocument; Protocol Additional to the Geneva Convention of August 12, 1949, and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts (Protocol II), adopted June 8, 1977, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/475?OpenDocument

8. Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices (Protocol II), adopted October 10, 1980, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/510?OpenDocument; Protocol on Prohibitions or Restrictions on the use of Mines, Booby-Traps and Other Devices as amended on May 3, 1996 (Protocol II to the 1980 Convention as amended on May 3, 1996), adopted May 3, 1996, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/575?OpenDocument

9. Second Protocol to the Hague Convention of 1954 for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict, adopted March 26, 1999, http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/590?OpenDocument

10. Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property, adopted November 14, 1970, http://portal.unesco.org/en/ev.php-URL_ID=13039&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html

11. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, adopted November 16, 1972, http://whc.unesco.org/archive/convention-en.pdf

12. Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, adopted 20 October 2005, http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/ev.php-URL_ID=11281&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html.

13. UNIDROIT Convention on Stolen or Illegally Exported Cultural Objects, adopted June 25, 1995, http://www.unidroit.org/english/conventions/1995culturalproperty/1995culturalproperty-e.htm

14. European Convention on Offences Relating to Cultural Property, adopted June 23, 1985, http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/119.htm

15. Convention for the Protection of the Architectural Heritage of Europe, adopted October 3, 1985, http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/121.htm

16. European Convention on the Protection of the Archaeological Heritage (Revised), adopted January 16, 1992, http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Html/143.htm

17. Council of Europe Framework Convention on the Value of Cultural Heritage for Society, adopted October 27, 2005, http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/EN/Treaties/Html/199.htm

18. The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage, adopted October 17, 2003, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0013/001325/132540e.pdf

19. Statute of the International Tribunal for the Prosecution of Persons Responsible for Serious Violations of International Humanitarian Law Committed in the Territory of the Former Yugoslavia since 1991, adopted May 25, 1993, http://www.icrc.org/IHL.nsf/FULL/555?OpenDocument

20. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, adopted June 17, 1998, http://www.icrc.org/IHL.nsf/52d68d14de6160e0c12563da005fdb1b/fb2c5995d7cbf846412566900039e535

21. IT-01–42/1-S, para. 52.

22. IT-01–42-T, para. 295.

23. Support from the fund is also granted to states not threatened by armed conflict in order to take implementation measures and in order to prepare in peace time for the foreseeable effects of an armed conflict.

24. Sixth Meeting of the Committee for the Protection of Cultural Property During Armed Conflict, UNESCO Paris, December 14–15, 2011, decision 6.COM 6, available on http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Decisions-en_20120216.pdf

25. Sixth Meeting of the Committee for the Protection of Cultural Property During Armed Conflict, UNESCO Paris, December 14–15, 2011, decision 6.COM 2, available on http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Decisions-en_20120216.pdf

26. Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of June 15, 1962, in the Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihaer (Cambodia v. Thailand), http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/151/16564.pdf

27. UNESCO, CLT-09/CONF/219/4 REV.:Art. 7.

28. Interview with Alfons Van Heusden, Advisor, Head of Section Humanitarian Law, Belgian Defence Forces, Yves Durieux, Staff Member of Defence, Dep. Operations and Training, Division of Planning, Section Law of Armed Conflicts, Marc Offermans, Legal Advisor, Ministry of Defence, November 23, 2007.

29. UNESCO CLT-2005/WS/6:1.

30. Report on the Implementation of the 1954 Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property in the Event of Armed Conflict and its Two (1954 and 1999) Protocols, 2005–2010, http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/periodic_report_2011_en.pdf

31. At least the rules regarding to respect (Art. 1–7 of the Convention) are considered as customary law.

32. Summary of summary of the Judgment of June 15, 1962, Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihaer, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=284&code=ct&p1=3&p2=3&case=45&k=46&p3=5

33. Request for Interpretation of the Judgment of June 15, 1962, in the Case Concerning the Temple of Preah Vihaer (Cambodia v. Thailand), http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/151/16564.pdf

34. Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro), Judgment of February 26, 2007, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/91/13685.pdf: para. 335–344

35. Case Concerning Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Croatia v. Serbia), Preliminary Objections, November 18, 2008, http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/118/14891.pdf#view=FitH&pagemode=none&search=%22cultural property%22: para: 140–143