Muslim Cultural Entrepreneurs and the Democracy Debate

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Notes

¹³³ Jihad al-Khazen, ‘Eyes and ears,’ Al-Hayat, 16 January 2003.

¹³² Mohamed. A. al-Gabri, ‘Democracy in Arab political thought’ (al-Jazeera.net, 2000) (accessed 23 December 2003), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/guest_issue/articles/2000/12/12–12–1.htm> [in Arabic].

¹³¹ Monsef Marzouki, ‘al-Anzema al-Arabia’ [Arab regimes] (al-Jazeera.net, 2002), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/op_direction/articles/2002/4/4–14–1.htm>; ‘Ashour Shames, Taqueem al-Mo'aradha al-Arabeya fil-Kharej [Evaluation of Arab opposition in exile] (al-Jazeera.net, 2002), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/opinions/articles/2002/2/2–17–3.htm> (accessed 11 January 2003).

¹³⁰ Muammar Qaddafi, ‘Libya and the Arab Summit’ (al-Jazeera.net, 2002), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/special_interview/articles/2002/3/3–29–2.htm> (accessed 23 December 2003) [in Arabic].

¹²⁹ Amir Taheri, ‘Two successful models of Islamic governance,’ al-Sharq al-Awssat, 5 May 2003 [in Arabic].

¹²⁸ El-Naggar, Misr wa-tahaddiyat al-’asr [Egypt and modern challenges], p. 16.

¹²⁷ Khatami, Religion and Thought in the Trap of Dictatorship, p. 44.

¹²⁶ Howaidi, Ihqaq al-Haq [Confirming the truth], p. 23.

¹²⁵ al–Turabi, al-Siyassa wal Hokm [Politics and governance], p. 13.

¹²⁴ Ahamd al-Qubassi, ‘Ijtihad in the modern age’ (al-Jazeera.net, 2002) (accessed 23 December 2002) [in Arabic].

¹²³ al-Zawahri, al-Hassad al-Mor: al-Ikhwan al-Muslimoon fi Seteen ‘Amah [The bitter harvest of the Muslim Brotherhood in 60 years], p. 4.

¹²² Al-Ansari, Mafhoum al-Hakemeyya fi Fikr ‘Abdullah Azzam [Sovereignty of God in the writings of Abdullah Azzam], p. 33.

¹²¹ Muhammad Iqbal, Six Lectures on the Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Lahore: Kapur Art Print Works, 1930), p. 82.

¹²⁰ al-Sharawi, Al-Shura and Legislation in Islam, p. 24 [in Arabic].

¹¹⁹ Ibn Baaz, The Obligation of Enjoining the Good and Forbidding the Evil .

¹¹⁸ Sa'd al-Buraiq, Hoqoq Wolat al-Amr [The rights of rulers], Audio tape (Islamweb.net, 1993) (accessed 17 March 2003).

¹¹⁷ Nasser al-Albani et al., Fitnat al-Takfeer (Riyadh: Ibn Khozaymma, 1997) [in Arabic].

¹¹⁶ Nasser al-Albani et al., Fitnat al-Takfeer (Riyadh: Ibn Khozaymma, 1997) [in Arabic].

¹¹⁵ al-Zawahri, al-Hassad al-Mor: al-Ikhwan al-Muslimoon fi Seteen ‘Amah [The bitter harvest of the Muslim Brotherhood in 60 years], pp. 8–10.

¹¹⁴ al–Badry, Islam's View on Socialism , printed pamphlet (Madina: Al-Maktaba al-Elmiyya, 1983).

¹¹³ Abdelrahman Abdelkhaleq, ‘Al-hokm beghayer ma Anzal Allah [Ruling against the verdict of God], Audio tape (Islamway.com, 1997) (accessed 17 March 2003); Naser al-Maged, ‘Haqeqat al-Bed'a wa Dhawbetha’ [The truth about innovation and its boundaries] (Islamtoday.net, 2002) (accessed 20 April 2003).

¹¹² Hafez Saleh, al-Demockrateya wa Hokm al-Islam Fiha [Democracy in the lenses of Islam] (Beirut: Dar al-Nahda al-Islameya, 1992), p. 78.

¹¹¹ A. Le Cahtelier, Moheb Al-Khateeb & Musa'ed Al-Yaffi, The Assault on the Muslim World (Riyadh: Al-Dar al-Saudi, 1980), p. 13 [in French and Arabic].

¹¹⁰ Abdel Qader Tash, The Crisis of Civilization and the Islamic Alternative (Detroit: Publication of Muslim Arab Students in North America, 1980), p. 9.

¹⁰⁹ Alan George, Syria: Neither Bread nor Freedom (New York: Zed Books, 2003), p. 14; A. B. S. Jafri, The Political Parties of Pakistan (Karachi: Royal Book Co., 2002), p. 41; Ian Marsh, Jean Blondel & Takashi Inoguchi, Democracy, Governance, and Economic Performance: East and Southeast Asia: The Changing Nature of Democracy (Tokyo and New York: United Nations University Press, 1999), p. 31; and A. A. Ujo, Understanding Political Parties in Nigeria (Kaduna, Nigeria: Klamidas Books, 2000), p. 79.

¹⁰⁸ Hassan II, Discours et interviews de SM Hassan II (Rabat: Ministère d'Etat chargé de l'information, 1999), p. 43; Anwar Sadat, Speeches and Interviews by President Mohamed Anwar el Sadat on the Occasion of his Visit to Jerusalem (Cairo: Ministry of Information, State Information Service, 1978), p. 32; and Muhammad Abd al-Jabb ar Sallam, al-Dimuqratiyah fi al-Yaman [Democracy in Yemen] (Yemen: n.p., 1996), p. 18.

¹⁰⁷ Sa'd Abu al-Su'ud, Khawatir—‘an al-dimuqratiyah, Kitab Hizb al-Wafd al-Jadid bi-al-Iskandariyah; al-kitab 1 [Thoughts on democracy by the New Wafd Party] (al-Iskandariyah: Hizb al-Wafd al-Jadid bi-al-Iskandariyah, 1995), p. 17.

¹⁰⁶ Said El-Naggar, Misr wa-tahaddiyat al-'asr [Egypt and modern challenges] (Cairo: Jam'iyat al-Nida al-Jadid, 1993), p. 69; and Saad Eddin Ibrahim et al., Dawr wasail al-ilam al-'Arabiyah fi da'm thaqafat al-mujtama al-madani: halqat niqashiyah [The role of mass media in promoting civil society] (Cairo: Markaz Ibn Khaldun lil-Dirasat al-Inmaiyah, 1997), p. 22.

¹⁰⁵ Ali Harb, ‘Does Islamization of sciences take us to totalitarian Islam?’ [interview in Arabic], al-Sharq al-Awssat, 22 June 2003; Hariq, Al-democratyya wa Tahdeyat al-Hadatha [Democracy and the challenges of modernity between the East and the West], pp. 78–79; Ahmad Abdelmo'eti Heggazi, ‘Renewing the religious discourse … yes and yes,’ al-Ahram, 23 January 2002.

¹⁰⁴ Howaidi, Ihqaq al-Haq [Confirming the truth], p. 92; Anwar Ibrahim, ‘The umma and tomorrow's world,’ Futures, 23(3) (1991), pp. 23–28; Khatami, Interview on CNN, available at < http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1998/iran/>; and Omara, al-Turath Fi Dhaw'e al-'Akl. [The legacy of Islam and the scrutiny of human reasoning], p. 16.

¹⁰³ See al-Qaradawi, Min Fiqh al-Dawla Fil-Islam [On the fiqh of the Islamic state], p. 27; and Mohamed Omara, Hal al-Islam Hoa al-Hal [Is Islam the solution? Why and how?] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1998), p. 92.

¹⁰² Mohamed. A. al-Gabri, On the Future of Arab Culture (Beirut: Center for the Study of Arab Unity, 1987), p. 25 [in Arabic]; Rachid al-Ghannouchi, Rights of Citizenship: The Status of Non-Muslims in an Islamic State (Tunisia: Dar-Alsahwa, 1988), p. 8 [in Arabic]; al–Ghazali, Dustor al-Wehda al-Thaqqafeya Bayn al-Muslmeen [Constitution of unity among Muslims], p. 92; al–Qaradawi, Thaqafatona Bayen al-Infetah and al-Inghelaq [Our culture between extroversion and introversion], p. 118.

¹⁰¹ Sufi Hasan Abu Talib, Tatbiq al-shariah al-Islamiyah fi al-bilad al-Arabiyah [Application of Islamic Shari'a in Arab states], 3rd ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Nahdah al-Arabiyah, 1986), p. 92.

¹⁰⁰ al–'Aawa, On the Political System of the Islamic State , pp. 11, 36–38; al-Qaradawi, Min Fiqh al-Dawla Fil-Islam [On the fiqh of the Islamic state], p. 44; and Mohamed Khatami, Religion and Thought in the Trap of Dictatorship [Arabic trans. of Persian] (Cairo: Maktabet al-Shorouq, 2001), p. 73.

⁹⁹ al-Ghazali, Dustor al-Wehda al-Thaqqafeya Bayn al-Muslmeen [Constitution of unity among Muslims], pp. 23–24; al–Qaradawi, Min Fiqh al-Dawla Fil-Islam [On the fiqh of the Islamic state], pp. 41–42; and Fahmi Howaidi, Ihqaq al-Haq [Confirming the truth] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1999), p. 73.

⁹⁸ Ali Abd al-Raziq, Al-Islam wa Ossoul al-Hokm [Islam and the bases of government] (Cairo: n.p., 1925), pp. 12–16; Charles Kurzman, ‘Liberal Islam: prospects and challenges,’ MERIA, 3(3) (1999); Daniel Lerner, The Passing of Traditional Society: Modernizing the Middle East (New York: Free Press, 1958), p. 19; and Bernard Lewis, The Multiple Identities of the Middle East (New York: Schocken Books, 2001), pp. 23–31.

⁹⁷ Jamal al-Din Afghani, Muhammad Abduh & Jamiyat al-Urwah al-Wuthqa, al-Urwah al-wuthqa, wa-al-thawrah al-tahririyah al-kubra, 1st ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Arab, 1957), p. 52; Khaldun Sati Husry, Three Reformers: A Study in Modern Arab Political Thought, 1st ed. (Beirut: Khayats, 1966), p. 62; Mohamed Omara, al-Turath Fi Dhaw'e al-'Akl [The legacy of Islam and the scrutiny of human reasoning] (Cairo: Dar al-Wehda, 1980); Rifaah Rafi Tahtawi and Anwar Luqa, L'Or de Paris: relation de voyage, 1826 –1831, La Bibliothèque Arabe. Collection Les Classiques (Paris: Sindbad, 1988), p. 62; and Khayr al-Din Tunisi & Munsif Shannufi, Aqwam al-masalik fi marifat ahwal al-mamalik, Tahqiq al-nusus: Akhbar wa-amsar (Qartaj: al-Muassasah al-Wataniyah lil-Tarjamah wa-al-Tahqiq wa-al-Dirasat, Bayt al-Hikmah, 1991), p. 93.

⁹⁶ Salman bin Hamad al-'Oda, How did the Mongols Invade the Homeland of Islam? (Riyadh: Dar Teeba, 1997), p. 16 [in Arabic].

⁹⁵ Abdullah Gabreen, Ahkam ahl al-Dhimma [Verdicts of the dhimmies], Arabic audio tapes (Islamway.com, 1989).

⁹⁴ Safar al-Hawali, Ahkam Ahl Al-Dhimma [The rules for dhimmies], Arabic audio tapes (Islamway.net, 1994).

⁹³ Fo'ad Abdelkarim, ‘Social globalization of woman and family,’ Al Bayan, 170 (2002), p. 29.

⁹² Salman al-'Oda, Sowar men Hayat al-Mara'a al-Mo'assera [Snapshots on women's contemporary lives] (Islamway.com, 1994); and Abdelaziz Ibn Baaz, Qaddaya al-Mara'a al-Muslema [Issues of the Muslim women], 12 audio tapes, (Islamway.com, 1981).

⁹¹ Quoted in Maye Kassem, In the Guise of Democracy: Governance in Contemporary Egypt (London: Ithaca Press, 1999), p. 54.

⁹⁰ Abdelraouf al-Rawabda, ‘Al-Democratiyya fi al-Watan al-Arabi’ [Forum on democracy in the Arab world] (al-Jazeera.net, 2001) [cited 30 June 2003], available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/opinions/articles/2001/11/11-29-6.htm>.

⁸⁹ Fred Halliday, Nation and Religion in the Middle East (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2000), p. 39; and Elya Hariq, Al-democratyya wa Tahdeyat al-Hadatha [Democracy and the challenges of modernity between the East and the West] (Beirut: Dar al-Saqi, 2001), p. 91.

⁸⁸ Mahmoud Sadri & Ahmad Sadri (Eds), Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 44.

⁸⁷ Tareq Heggi, ‘The tough choice between two models of civilization interacting,’ al-Ahram, 19 October 2002, p. 51 [in Arabic].

⁸⁶ Mahfouz Nehnah, The Desired Algeria (Algiers: Dar Annaba’, 1999), p. 54 [in Arabic].

⁸⁵ Tariq Bishri, al-Hiwar al-Islami al-Almani [The secular–Islamic dialogue], 1st ed. (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1996), p. 53.

⁸⁴ al-Gorshy, ‘Deepening democracy,’ p. 25.

⁸³ Kamal Abo al-Magd, Dialogue Not Confrontation: Studies on Islam and Modern Times (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1988); and al-Ghazali, Islam and Political Dictatorship (Cairo: Dar Al-Kotob al-Islamia, n.p.), p. 37.

⁸² al-Gorshy, ‘Deepening democracy,’ p. 23.

⁸¹ Mohamed Sa'eed al-Bouti, al-Salafeya: Marhala Zmaneya Mubaraka La Madhab Islami [Salafism: a blessed era, not an Islamic doctrine] (Damascus: Dar al-Fikr, 1990), p. 42.

⁸⁰ Imam Shirazi, ‘Wilayat al al-faqih,’ Annabaa, 57 (May 2001), p. 41.

⁷⁹ King Fahd, Interview, Mideast Mirror, 30 March 1992, p. 18.

⁷⁸ Abdullateef Mushtaheri, Al-Amr Shura Benahom [Their decision is by consultation], Audio tape, available at Islamway.com.

⁷⁷ The most recent application of non-binding shura was the Taliban's system of government; there were several shura councils, but none of them could enforce their decisions on Mulla Omar. See Mawlai Haffez Allah Haqqani, Taliban from the Dream of Mulla to Leadership of the Believers (Islamabad: Center for Political Research, 1997), p. 35.

⁷⁶ Mohamed Ali Taskheeri, Interview, ‘The reality of Al-Wali Al-Faqih in Iran’ (al-Jazeera.net, 1999), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/interview/articles/2002/1/1-16-4.htm>.

⁷⁵ Mohamed Motwali al-Sharawi, Al-Shura and Legislation in Islam (Cairo: Dar Thabet, 1980), p. 39; and Mawdudi, Concepts of Islam Regarding Religion and State, p. 72.

⁷⁴ al–Zawahri, al-Hassad al-Mor: al-Ikhwan al-Muslimoon fi Seteen ‘Amah [The bitter harvest of the Muslim Brotherhood in 60 years], p. 16.

⁷³ Salah Eldeen al-Gorshy, ‘Deepening democracy: a new mission ahead of Islamic thought,’ Al'Arabi, 456 (1997).

⁷² In this section all traditionalists will be treated as a single group since they differ only with regard to means.

⁷¹ Fawaz Gerges, Quoted in Margot Patterson, ‘Islam on the defensive,’ National Catholic Reporter, 14 December 2001.

⁷⁰ Bahgat Korany, ‘Democracy, Islam, and the study of Middle Eastern politics: Arab democratization: a poor cousin?,’ Political Science and Politics, 27(3) (1994), p. 512.

⁶⁹ Ghassan Salamah, Democracy without Democrats? The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World (London and New York: I. B. Tauris, 1994), p. 9.

⁶⁸ Saad Eddin Ibrahim, Azmat al-dimuqratiyah fi al-watan al-’Arabi [The crisis of democracy in the Arab world] (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wahdah al-'Arabiyah, 1984), p. 23.

⁶⁷ Saad Eddin Ibrahim, Azmat al-dimuqratiyah fi al-watan al-’Arabi [The crisis of democracy in the Arab world] (Beirut: Markaz Dirasat al-Wahdah al-'Arabiyah, 1984), p. 23.

⁶⁶ Elya Hariq, Al-democratyya wa Tahdeyat al-Hadatha [Democracy and the challenges of modernity between the East and the West (Beirut: Dar al-Saqi, 2001), p. 39.

⁶⁵ Hussain Abdelrazeq, ‘Al-Democrateya fi al-Watan al-Arabi’ [Forum on democracy in the Arab world] (al-Jazeera.net, 2001), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/opinions/articles/2001/11/11-29-6.htm> (accessed 30 June 2003).

⁶⁴ Saad Eddin Ibrahim, Democracy and Human Rights in the Middle East Today (Washington, DC: Center for the Study of Islam and Democracy, 2003).

⁶³ Saddam Hussein, President Hussein Interviewed by Kuwaiti Press on Gulf War, February 20 , 1988 (Baghdad: Dar al-Mamun for Translation and Pub., 1988), p. 16.

⁶² Hafez Assad and Mustafa Talas, Kadhalika qala al-Asad [That is what Assad said] (Damascus: Talas), p.82.

⁶¹ Luis Martinez, The Algerian Civil War, 1990 –1998, Ceri Series in Comparative Politics and International Studies (New York: Columbia University Press in association with the Centre d'Etudes et de Recherches Internationales, 2000), p. 18.

⁶⁰ James Schofield, Silent over Africa: Stories of War and Genocide (Sydney and New York: HarperCollins, 1996), p. 113.

⁵⁹ Hosni Mubarak, Speeches, President Mubarak: G- 15 (Cairo: Arab Republic of Egypt, Ministry of Information, State Information Service, 1992), p. 23.

⁵⁸ Robert Fisk, Pity the Nation: The Abduction of Lebanon, 4th new American ed. (New York: Thunder's Mouth Press/Nation Books, 2002), p. 19.

⁵⁷ I. William Zartman, Political Elites in Arab North Africa: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Egypt (New York: Longman, 1982), p. 34.

⁵⁶ Marina Ottaway et al., ‘Democratic mirage in the Middle East,’ Carnegie Endowment Policy Brief, 20 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2002), p. 4.

⁵⁵ Marina Ottaway et al., ‘Democratic mirage in the Middle East,’ Carnegie Endowment Policy Brief, 20 (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2002), p. 4.

⁵⁴ John Waterbury, ‘Democracy without Democrats?,’ in: Ghassan Salama (Ed.) Democracy without Democrats? The Renewal of Politics in the Muslim World (London: I. B. Tauris, 1994).

⁵³ This was the argument Tunisian president Zein Abdin Ben Ali made to decapitate the Islamist opposition Nahda (Renaissance) Party after winning the elections of 1993 with 99.91 percent of the vote; see further Stephen King, Liberalization against Democracy: The Local Politics of Economic Reform in Tunisia (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2003). Mostafa Faki, head of the Foreign Relations Committee of Egypt's parliament, said: ‘If you open the door for genuine democracy, you have the chance that fundamentalists will come to power. What will the Americans do with them?’ See Mostafa Faki interview with Anthony Shadid, ‘Restrictive Arab nations feel pressure from within,’ Washington Post, 27 February 2003.

⁵² Ali Abul Khair, ‘Political Islam and democracy,’ al-Wafd, 2 February 2003.

⁵¹ Mohamed Othaimeen, Fatawa, Audio tape no. 53, available at binothaimeen.com (1998).

⁵⁰ The Qur'an, chap. 49, verse 13; Abdelaziz Ibn Baaz, The Obligation of Enjoining the Good and Forbidding the Evil (Riyadh: Dar al-Essma, 1992), p. 3.

⁴⁹ Abu Ebbada al-Ansari, Mafhoum al-Hakemeyya fi Fikr ‘Abdullah Azzam [Sovereignty of God in the writings of Abdullah Azzam] (Peshawar, Pakistan: Markez al-Shaheed Azzam, 1988); Mohamed Farag, al-Faredha al-Gha'eba [The absent obligation] (Cairo: n.p., 1995), p. 41; Mawdudi, Concepts of Islam Regarding Religion and State (Kuwait: Dar al-Qalam, 1977), p. 83; and Qutb, Signposts, p. 25.

⁴⁸ The Qur'an, chap. 9, verse 5. There is disagreement about which verse is actually the verse of the sword. Yet most likely it is the quoted verse or this one (from the same chapter of Surat al-Tawba: ‘Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by God and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the Religion of Truth, from among the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued’ (The Qur'an, chap. 9, verse 29).

⁴⁷ This refers to violence directed at governments and societies in the Muslim world. Muslims in general—regardless of their ideological preferences—may support violent resistance against invaders or, as is often the case, Israel. See further Abdelmohsen al-'Abeykan, ‘Suicide operations,’ al-Sharq al-Awssat, 6 July 2003.

⁴⁶ Atef al-'Eraqi, ‘Ethical values between scientific progress and the achievements of civilization,’ al-Ahram, 29 December 2002.

⁴⁵ Arkoun, Rethinking Islam, p. 4.

⁴⁴ Iqbal Barakah, ‘al-Democratia w'al Hurriyyat al-Mara'a’ [Democracy and freedom of women], al-Ahram, 12 June 2002.

⁴³ Abdullah Bagabeer, ‘Mo'asserat Thaqqfeyya’ [Cultural indicators], al-Sharq al-Awssat, 22 June 2003.

⁴² Mohamed Arkoun, Rethinking Islam: Common Questions, Uncommon Answers, Robert D. Lee (Ed. and Trans.) (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994), p. 3.

⁴¹ Turki Al-Hamad, El-Thaqaffa El-Arabia Amam Tahdeyyat el-Tagheer [Arabic culture facing the challenges of change) (London: Dar al-Saqi, 1993), p. 82.

⁴⁰ Murad Wahba, Gorthomat al-Takhalof [The virus of retardation] (Cairo: Al-Haya'a al-Massreyya Lil-Ketab, 1998), p. 41.

³⁹ Sadek. J. al-’Azm, Critique of Religious Thought (Beirut: n.p., 1969), p. 69; and Farag Fouda, A Dialogue on Secularism (Cairo: Dar Al-Fikr for Research and Studies, 1993), p. 6.

³⁸ Nikki R. Keddie, ‘Intellectuals in the modern Middle East: a brief historical consideration,’ Daedalus, 44 (1972), p. 9.

³⁷ Hassan al-Turabi, al-Siyassa wal Hokm [Politics and governance] (London: Dar al-Saqqi, 2003); ‘Arabeyat, ‘al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Mo'asser’, p. 41.

³⁶ Rachid al-Ghannouchi, Interview (al-Jazeera.net), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/guest_issue/articles/2001/12/11-19-1.htm>. (28 June 2003).

³⁵ Arabeyat, ‘al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Mo'asser’, p. 19.

³⁴ al-Ghazali, Dustor al-Wehda al-Thaqqafeya Bayn al-Muslmeen, p. 29; and Fazlur Rahman, Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982), p. 34.

³³ Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Omatona Bayen Qarnayen [Our nation between two centuries] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 2000), p. 45.

³² Ali Shariati and Farhang Rajaee, What is to be Done: The Enlightened Thinkers and an Islamic Renaissance (Houston: Institute for Research and Islamic Studies, 1986).

³¹ Mohamed al-Ghazali, Dustor al-Wehda al-Thaqqafeya Bayn al-Muslmeen [Constitution of unity among Muslims] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1997), p. 156.

³⁰ Mohamed al-Ghazali, Kheyarat al-Muslim al-Halal [Muslims’ halal choices] (Qatar National Radio, 1985).

²⁹ Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Thaqafatona Bayen al-Infetah and al-Inghelaq [Our culture between extroversion and introversion] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 2000), p. 41.

²⁸ Though scholars of hadith do not consider it authentic, many Muslims believe it is.

²⁷ Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyah, A'lam al-Muwaqqi'in (Cairo: n.p., 1969), part 3, p. 1.

²⁶ Yusuf al-Qaradawi, ‘al-’Elaqqa ma'a Ghayer al-Moslemeen’ [The relationship with non-Muslims] (al-Jazeera.net), available at < http://www.aljazeera.net/programs/shareea/articles/2003/6/6-25-1.htm>.

²⁵ All'al Fasi, Difa’ ‘an al-shariah [Defending sharia’] (Rabat: Muassasat ‘Allal al-Fasi, 1972), p. 44.

²⁴ Khaled Abou El Fadl, ‘Islam: images, politics and paradox,’ Middle East Report, 221 (Winter 2001), available at < http://www.merip.org/mer/mer221/221_abu_el_fadl.html>.

²³ Khaled Abou El Fadl, ‘Islam: images, politics and paradox,’ Middle East Report, 221 (Winter 2001), available at < http://www.merip.org/mer/mer221/221_abu_el_fadl.html>.

²² Abdel Latif ‘Arabeyat, ‘al-Fiqh al-Islami al-Mo'asser’ [Contemporary political Islamic fiqh], available at Jazeera.net (1998).

²¹ Abdel Azeez al-Badry, Islam's View of Socialism (Madina: Al-Maktaba al-Elmiyya, 1983), p. 150; and Qutb, Signposts, p. 16.

²⁰ Ayman al-Zawahri, ‘al-Hassad al-Mor: al-Ikhwan al-Muslimoon fi Seteen ‘Amah’ [The bitter harvest of the Muslim Brotherhood in 60 years] (n.p., n.d.) (unpublished pamphlet).

¹⁹ Galal al-'Alem, Kaddat al-Gharb Yakoloon: Damero al-Islam and Abeedo Ahlaho [Leaders of the West say: destroy Islam, annihilate its people] (Tripoli, Lebanon: Transcript, 1975), pp. 48–49.

¹⁸ Abu Is'haq Al-Howaini, ‘Al-wala’ wa al-bara'a' [Alliance and disloyalty], available at Islamway.com, 1998; and Ayman al-Zawahri, ‘Al-wala’ wa al-bara'a' [Alliance and disloyalty], al-Quds al-Arabi, 25 December 2002.

¹⁷ Reported by Imams Termithy & Abu-Dawd. Damascus: Dar al-Shab, 1978.

¹⁶ Abo Bakr al-Gazza'eri, Who Is Responsible for the Loss of Islam? (Cairo: Maktabet al-Kolleyat al-Azhareya, 1984), p. 12.

¹⁵ Ghazi Enaya, Jahelayat Al-Demokrateya [The bankruptcy/apostasy of democracy] (Amman: Dar Zahran Lenashr wa al-Tawzee, 1999), p. 12.

¹⁴ Sayyid Qutb, Signposts (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1989), p. 42.

¹³ The Qur'an, chap. 5, verse 3.

¹² Ahmad Musa Jibril, ‘Celebrating the holidays of the infidels’ (2003), available at < http://www.alsalafyoon.com/EnglishPosts/HolidayInfidel.htm>.

¹¹ Hisham Sharabi, Arab Intellectuals and the West: The Formative Years, 1875 –1914 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1970), p. 121.

¹⁰ Mohamed S. al-Ashmawi, Against Islamic Extremism: The Writings of Muhammad Sa‘id Al-‘Ashmawy (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 1998); Ref'at al-Sa'eed, Al-'alamnya bayyeen al-Islam Wa al-Ta'sloum [Secularism between Islam and fake Islamization], Ketab Al-Ahali (Cairo: Al-Tagou' Party in Egypt, 2001); Ahmad Baghdadi, Tagdid Al-Fikr Al-Dini [Renovation of religious thought] (Damascus: Al Mada, 1999); Ahamad Abdelmo'eti Heggazi, ‘From real world to the text and not vice versa,’ Al-Ahram, 6 February 2002; Mohamed Khalaf Allah, The Qura'anic Foundations of Progress (Cairo: Ketab al-Ahali, 1984); and Fatima Mernissi, Islam and Democracy: Fear of the Modern World (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1992).

⁹ Mohamed S. al-’Aawa, On the Political System of the Islamic State (Cairo: Dar-Alshorouk, 1989); Mohamed al-Ghazali, Islam and Political Dictatorship (Cairo: Dar Al-Kotob al-Islamia, n.d.); M. al-Khalidi, Naqdh Al-Nizzam Al-Democratyya [Criticism of the democratic system] (Beirut: Dar Al-Jeel, 1984); Salman Bin Fahd al-’Oda, Nehayyet al-Tarikh [The end of history] (Al-Salafyoon, 2000), available at < http://66.34.76.88/ArabicPosts/MalikyUdah1.htm>; Yusuf al-Qaradawi, Min Fiqh al-Dawla Fil-Islam [On the fiqh of the Islamic state] (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 2001); Fahmi Howaidi, Citizens Not Dhimmies: The Status of Non-Muslims in Muslims' Society (Cairo: Dar al-Shorouq, 1985); Mohamed Khatami, Interview on CNN, 7 January 1998, available at < http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/1998/iran/>; A. Mawdudi, Islam Facing Modern Challenges (Kuwait: Dar al-Qalam, 1980); Mohamed Said No'amani, The Feasability of Dialogue among Cultures (al-Jazeera.net, 2002); and Sayyid Qutb, Al-Mustaqbal Li-Hazza Al-Deen [The future is for this religion] (Gary, IN: International Islamic Federation of Student Organizations, 1970).

⁸ James A. Bill & Robert Springborg, Politics in the Middle East, 5th ed. (New York: HarperCollins, 2000), p. 55.

⁷ Charles Tilly, Popular Contention in Great Britain, 1758 –1834 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), p. 42.

⁶ David D. Laitin & Aaron Wildavsky, ‘Political culture and political preferences,’ American Political Science Review, 82(2) (1988), pp. 589–597.

⁵ Aaron Wildavsky, ‘Choosing preferences by constructing institutions: a cultural theory of preference formation,’ American Political Science Review, 81 (1987), pp. 3–21.

⁴ Yahya Sadowski, ‘The new Orientalism and the democracy debate,’ Middle East Report, 193 (1993), pp. 14–21.

³ Bernard Lewis, ‘Islam and liberal democracy,’ The Atlantic Monthly, February 1993, pp. 54–55.

² Daniel Pipes, In the Path of God: Islam and Political Power (New York: Basic Books, 1983), p. 144.

¹ Samuel P. Huntington, ‘Will more countries become democratic?,’ Political Science Quarterly, 99 (1984), p. 99.