Media Policy Goes to Main Street: The Uprising of 2003

Abstract

In this article, I chronicle the uprising of 2003, when media policy absolutely exploded into the public consciousness as millions of Americans registered their opposition to the relaxation of long-standing media ownership rules. I concentrate on the first half of 2003, when the popular movement moved from the margins to the mainstream and put media reform activism in the public eye for the first time in generations. In some ways this event also provides a textbook case of corrupt policy making as the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) majority, following standard operating procedure for that less-than-august body, acted reprehensibly in view of the public feedback it received. The Republican leadership in Congress was no better. I will emphasize the activities and arguments of FCC members Michael Powell and Michael Copps because they came to lead the respective sides and became the leading public faces of the media ownership debate. Important organizing work took place in previous years—centered around groups like Consumers Union, Media Access Project, and Center for Digital Democracy—and made what happened in 2003 possible. Once the struggle reached Congress in the summer of 2003, popular opposition to the relaxation of media ownership rules was already organized, and the outcome remained undetermined even into 2004.

This is an edited and updated version of Chapter 7 in The Problem of the Media. Reprinted in part from The Problem of the Media by permission of Monthly Review Press, 2004.

Notes

1 David Lieberman, “Media Merger Anxiety,” USA Today, 9 October 2000.

2 Dhavan Shah, Mergers and Open Access: Public Concerns and Preferences, (Digital Media Forum, 2000).

3 For an overview of media criticism and activism in the United States over the past century, see Robert W. McChesney and Ben Scott, eds., Our Unfree Press: 100 Years of Radical Media Criticism (New York: New Press, 2004).

4 Part of the deal to include the reduction of LPFM stations from one thousand to a few hundred in the budget bill was to call for a study of whether, as the NAB claimed, Kennard's plan would have actually led to interference with the existing radio broadcasters. This study was completed in 2003 and it appears to have exonerated Kennard. As we go to press, LPFM advocates are working to have Congress revisit the issue and implement the Kennard plan.

5 Robert W. McChesney, “Kennard, the Public, and the FCC,” Nation, 14 May 2001.

6 John Nichols and Robert W. McChesney, “On the Verge in Vermont: Media Reform Movement Nears Critical Mass,” Extra!, July/August 2002, 26.

7 Federal Communications Commission, “FCC Chairman Michael Powell Announces Creation of Media Ownership Working Group,” news release, 29 October 2001.

8 Gene Kimmelman to Robert W. McChesney, personal communication to author, 30 October 2003.

9 Cherly Arvidson, “FCC's Powell: Time to Give Broadcasters Full First Amendment Rights,” 27 April 1998, http://www.freedomforum.org/.

10 Jill Goldsmith and Pamela McClintock, “Powell Eyes Update: Chairman Urges Ownership Rules Changes,” Variety, 2 October 2002.

11 Frank Rose, “Big Media or Bust,” Wired, March 2002.

12 “The Antithesis of What the Public Interest Demands,” Broadcasting & Cable, 14 October 2002, 16.

13 Rose, “Big Media or Bust.”

14 Dan Roberts, “FCC Chief ‘Working Himself Out of a Job,’” Financial Times, 25 May 2001.

15 Bill McConnell, “A Quiet Warrior for Ownership Deregulation,” Broadcasting & Cable, 13 October 2003, 36.

16 “FCC Approves Digital Radio,” Wall Street Journal, 10 October 2002, http://online.wsj.com/.

17 Jube Shiver Jr., “Citizens Knocking on FCC's Door,” Los Angeles Times, 26 January 2003.

18 Bill McConnell, “Martin Likes the FCC's Measured Pace,” Broadcasting & Cable, 9 December 2002, 26.

19 Michael J. Copps, Re: In the Matter of Applications for Consent to the Transfer of Control of Licenses from Comcast Corporation and AT&T Corp., Transferors, to AT&T Comcast Corporation, Transferee MB Docket No. 02–70, Dissenting Statement, November 2002.

20 Bill McConnell, “Media Face Grilling from Copps,” Broadcasting & Cable, 25 November 2002, 10.

21 Doug Halonen, “Copps Will Hold Field Hearings on Ownership,” Electronic Media, 25 November 2002, 3.

22 Federal Communications Commission, “Commissioner Michael J. Copps Expresses ‘Alarm’ and ‘Disappointment’ with FCC's Media Concentration Decision,” news release, 5 November 2002.

23 Pamela McClintock, “Will GOP Change the Rules?” Variety, 11–17 November 2002, 19.

24 Edward Ericson Jr., “The News from Corporate,” Harper's Magazine, August 2002, 52–53.

25 Yochi J. Dreazen, “Three Media Firms Ask FCC to Abandon Ownership Rules,” Wall Street Journal, 3 January 2003.

26 Bill Kovach and Tom Rosenstiel, “All News Media Inc.,” New York Times, 7 January 2003.

27 Marvin Kalb, “Quality Is No Issue,” 19 January 2003, http://www.newsday.com/.

28 Mark Fitzgerald, “Copps: Media Should Cover FCC Reform,” 16 April 2003, http://www.editorandpublisher.com/.

29 Edmund Sanders, “Media Giants at Odds Over FCC Cap on TV Station Ownership,” Los Angeles Times, 18 February 2003.

30 Fairness & Accuracy in Reporting letter to FCC, “A Call for Media Democracy,” December 2002.

31 Federal Communications Commission, “Statement of Commissioner Jonathan S. Adelstein, Dissenting,” news release, 2 June 2003, 5.

32 Doug Halonen, “FCC's Deregulation Proposals Hit Hurdle,” Electronic Media, 20 January 2003, 4.

33 Robert W. McChesney and John Nichols, “Holding the Line at the FCC,” Progressive, April 2003.

34 Pamela McClintock, “FCC to Tackle Ownership Rules,” Variety, 20–26 January 2003, A11.

35 “Onward to Richmond,” Broadcasting & Cable, 9 December 2002, 40.

36 Catherine Yang, “The FCC's Loner Is No Longer So Lonely,” Business Week, 24 March 2003, 78; “Ownership Hearings Added,” Electronic Media, 10 February 2003, 6.

37 Peter Thal Larsen, “Viacom to Seek More US Acquisitions,” Financial Times, 12 February 2003.

38 Edmund Sanders, “Reflecting on Media Ownership Debate,” 2 June 2003, http://www.newsday.com/.

39 Doug Halonen, “Michael Copps,” Electronic Media, 20 January 2003, 52.

40 Andrew Ratner, “FCC Is Assailed on Plan Aiding Big Media Firms,” Baltimore Sun, 25 May 2003.

41 Goldsmith and McClintock, “Powell Eyes Update.”

42 Demetri Sevastopulo, “Vote to Relax Media Rules Sparks Protest,” Financial Times, 3 June 2003.

43 Michael Powell, “Remarks of Michael J. Powell, Chairman, Federal Communications Commission,” (lecture, Media Institute, 27 March 2003).

44 McChesney and Nichols, “Holding the Line at the FCC.”

45 Patricia Aufderheide, Communications in the Public Interest (New York: Guilford Press, 1999), 168.

46 Stephen Labaton, “Senators Move to Restore F.C.C. Limits on the Media,” New York Times, 5 June 2003.

47 Jon Fine, “FCC Chief: Media Consolidation Serves Public,” 28 April 2003, http://www.adage.com/.

48 Powell, “Remarks of Michael J. Powell,” Media Institute’ Peter Thal Larsen and Demetri Sevastopulo, “Powell Under Pressure: As the US Prepares to Relax Its Laws on Media Ownership, a Political Battle Brews,” Financial Times, 30 April 2003.

49 Al Tompkins, “Powell: ‘Rising Anxiety Over Radio Ownership,’” 9 April 2003, http://www.poynter.org/.

50 Michael K. Powell, “New Rules, Old Rhetoric,” New York Times, 28 July 2003.

51 Powell, “Remarks of Michael J. Powell,” Media Institute.

52 Staci D. Kramer, “FCC Chairman Michael Powell Sees Bright Future for Online Media,” Online Journalism Review, 4 September 2003, http://www.ojr.org/.

53 Michael K. Powell, “Should Limits on Broadcast Ownership Change?” USA Today, 21 January 2003.

54 Todd Bishop, “FCC May Drop Rules Limiting Media Ownership in a Single Market,” Seattle Post-Intelligencer, 29 April 2003.

55 Michael Powell, “Remarks of Michael Powell,” (lecture, convention of National Association of Broadcasters, Las Vegas, NV, April 2003).

56 Joanna Glasner, “Media More Diverse? Not Really,” wired, 30 May 2003, http://www.wired.com/news/.

57 Peter Thal Larsen and Demetri Sevastopulo, “Free-to-Air TV Is Under Threat, Warns FCC Chief,’ Financial Times, 30 April 2003.

58 Associated Press, “FCC Chief Wants Ownership Rules Eased,” AP dispatch, 27 May 2003.

59 Michael K. Powell, interview by John McLaughlin, One on One, WRC-TV, Washington, DC, 4 September 2003.

60 Joe Flint, “Loosening Media Regulations Risks Thwarting Innovation,” Wall Street Journal, 2 June 2003, http://online.wsj.com/

61 Edmund Sanders and Jube Shiver Jr., “FCC Relaxes Limits on Media Ownership,” Los Angeles Times, 3 June 2003.

62 Brooks Boliek, “FCC Majority Set on Rules Rewrite,” Hollywood Reporter, 9 May 2003.

63 Tom Shales, “Michael Powell and the FCC: Giving Away the Marketplace of Ideas,” Washington Post, 2 June 2003.

64 Stuart Elliott, “Early Ad Sales for the 2003–4 TV Season Turn into a ‘Runaway Sellers’ Market,” New York Times, 23 May 2003.

65 Steve McClellan, “Broadcast Nets Hit the Jackpot,” Broadcasting & Cable, 2 June 2003, 24.

66 Jay Sherman, “Study: Broadcast Ad Cash on the Rise,” Television Week, 11 August 2003, 6; Diane Mermigas, “Broadcast Growth Projected,” Television Week, 16 June 2003, 3.

67 Jube Shiver Jr., “Senate Committee to Take On FCC Rules,” Los Angeles Times, 5 June 2003.

68 Powell, “New Rules, Old Rhetoric.”

69 Catherine Yang and Joseph Weber, “Where Media Merger Mania Could Strike First,” Business Week, 9 June 2003, 96.

70 For a very small sampling, see Ira Teinowitz and Jon Fine, “Media Giants Gird for Merger Mania,” Advertising Age, 19 May 2003, 3, 142; Jay Sherman, “Station Deals Wait in the Wings,” Television Week, 19 May 2003, 1, 62; Mark Fitzgerald and Todd Shields, “After June 2, Papers May Make Broadcast News,” Editor & Publisher, 26 May 2003, 3–4; Lucia Moses, “On the Road to Freedom,” Editor & Publisher, 24 March 2003, 14–19, 29.

71 Louis Aguilar, “Post Publisher: FCC to Lift Bans,” Denver Post, 23 February 2003.

72 Catherine Yang and Joseph Weber, “Media Merger Mania: The First Wave,” 30 May 2003, http://www.businessweek.com/.

73 Alec Klein and David A. Vise, “Media Giants Hint They Might Be Expanding,” Washington Post, 3 June 2003.

74 Federal Communications Commission, “Statement of Commissioner Jonathan S. Adelstein, Dissenting.”

75 Federal Communications Commission, “Statement of Commissioner Michael J. Copps, Dissenting,” news release, 2 June 2003.

76 Michael Copps, “Crunch Time at the FCC,” Nation, 3 February 2003, 5.

77 Powell, “New Rules, Old Rhetoric,”; Michael K. Powell, interview by John McLaughlin.

78 Mark Wigfield, “Bear Stearns Analyst Helps FCC Reshape Ownership Rules,” Dow Jones Newswires, 2 June 2003.

79 Dean Baker, Democracy Unhinged: More Concentration Means Less Public Discourse—A Critique of the FCC Studies on Media Ownership (Washington D.C.: Department for Professional Employees, AFL-CIO, 2003), 23, http://www.dpeaflcio.org/pdf/FCC_Critique.pdf.

80 Jennifer Lee, “Musicians Protest Monopoly in Media,” New York Times, 18 December 2003.

81 Martin Kaplan, “The ‘Local’ in Local TV Is in Danger,” Christian Science Monitor, 2 June 2003.

82 Baker, “Democracy Unhinged,” 22.

83 Michael Copps in discussion with the author, 20 February 2003.

84 Bill McConnell, “Critics: FCC Stacks Dereg Deck,” Broadcasting & Cable, 7 October 2002.

85 McChesney and Nichols, “Holding the Line at the FCC.”

86 David Ho, “Media Ownership Review to Finish in May,” Associated Press dispatch, 26 February 2003.

87 Keri Brenner, “FCC Member Warns about Consolidation,” Marin Independent Journal, 26 April 2003.

88 “The Arizona Forum on Media Ownership,” 7 April 2003, http://www.benton.org/; Alwyn Scott, “Move to Ease Media-Ownership Rules Given a Cool Reception in Seattle,” Seattle Times, 8 March 2003; Hunter Lewis, “FCC Gets an Earful at Hearing,” Herald-Sun, 31 March 2003; Suzanne Bohan, “Huge Turnout at FCC Meeting,” Argus, 3 April 2003,http://www.theargusonline.com/.

89 Jonathan S. Adelstein, “Big Macs and Big Media: The Decision to Supersize,” (lecture, Media Institute, 20 May 2003).

90 Steven T. Jones, “The Democracy Disaster,” 6 May 2003, http://www.sfbg.com/; Karen Young, “The Midwest Public Forum on Media Ownership,” CMW Report, Spring 2003, 6–7.

91 See, for example, Jennifer Lee, “On Minot, N.D., Radio, a Single Corporate Voice,” New York Times, 31 March 2003; Joanne Ostrow, “Musicians Blast FCC Plan,” Denver Post, 23 May 2003.

92 Tom Shales, “Dialing In a Bland TV Landscape,” Television Week, 2 June 2003, 53.

93 Craig Linder, “FCC Dems Hear from Deregulation Opponents,” Hollywood Reporter, 28 May 2003.

94 George E. Curry, “FCC Decision Curbs Dissent,” Final Call.com News, 22 June 2003; “Who Killed Black Radio News?” Black Commentator, May 2003, http://www.blackcommentator.com/.

95 Eric Boehlert, “Clear Channel's Big, Stinking Deregulation Mess,” 19 February 2003, http://www.salon.com/.

96 Catherine Yang, “The News Biz: Is Bigger Better?” Business Week, 3 March 2003, 97.

97 “Remarks of Michael J. Powell,” Media Institute.

98 Powell, “The Silence of the Lambs: Who Speaks for Journalists Before the FCC?” Columbia Journalism Review, January/February 2003; P. J. Bednarski, “Losing Our Voices,” Broadcasting & Cable, 9 June 2003, 67.

99 “Pushing Back at the FCC,” Guild Reporter, 24 January 2003, 1–2.

100 “IFJ Criticizes Proposed Changes in Media Ownership Rules,” news release, May 2003.

101 John Eggerton, “Unions Fight Urge to Merge,” Broadcasting & Cable, 30 December 2002, 12.

102 Edmund Sanders, “Hollywood Guilds Band Together to Defend Media Ownership,” Los Angeles Times, 13 January 2003.

103 “Union Movement Says Media Monopolies Threaten Democracy,” news release, 5 March 2003.

104 “PR Society Seeks More Transparency in FCC Broadcast Ownership Review,” 27 May 2003; http://www.businesswire.com/ Ira Teinowitz, “4A's to Dispute FCC Findings on Media Industry Mergers,” Advertising Age, 21 October 2002, 8; David Verklin, “Go Slow on FCC Rule Change,” Advertising Age, 19 May 2003, 22.

105 Pamela McClintock, “Sony, Ad Firm Say Consolidation Leads to Bland TV,” Variety, 2 February 2003.

106 Ted Turner, “Monopoly or Democracy?” Washington Post, 30 May 2003.

107 Shales, “Michael Powell and the FCC.”

108 Frank Ahrens, “FCC Bid to Alter Media Rules Spurs Free-Speech Debate,” Washington Post, 28 May 2003.

109 Powell, “Remarks of Michael J. Powell, ” Media Institute; Andrew Ratner, “War Coverage Could Alter U.S. Media Policy,” Baltimore Sun, 30 March 2003.

110 Ted Hearn, “Commish: Media Copping Out on Coverage,” Multichannel News, 29 April 2003.

111 Federal Communications Commission, Gal Beckerman, “Tripping Up Big Media,” Columbia Journalism Review, November/December 2003, 15–20.

112 Richard Burr, (Statement, Hearing on Media Ownership, Duke University, Durham, NC, 31 March 2003).

113 Wayne LaPierre, “Speak Out vs. FCC While You Can,” New York Daily News, 18 July 2003.

114 Richard Burr and Jesse Helms, “Keep Control of TV Local,” Charlotte Observer, 19 October 2003.

115 Federal Communications Commission, “Statement of Commissioner Michael J. Copps.”

116 William Safire, “On Media Giantism,” New York Times, 20 January 2003; William Safire, “Big Media's Silence,” New York Times, 17 July 2003; William Safire, “Localism's Last Stand,” New York Times, 24 July 2003; William Safire, “Bush's Four Horsemen,” New York Times, 20 January 2003; William Safire, “The Senate Says No,” New York Times, 17 September 2003.

117 William Safire, “Regulate the F.C.C.,” New York Times, 16 June 2003.

118 Mark Wigfield, “FCC's Powell Urges Divided Media Industry to Back Dereg,” Dow Jones Business News dispatch, 7 April 2003.

119 John Nichols, “The FCC Rejects Public Interest,” Nation, 2 June 2003, http://www.thenation.com/; Bob Williams, “Behind Closed Doors,” (lecture, Center for Public Integrity, 29 May 2003).

120 Bob Williams and Morgan Jindrich, “On the Road Again—and Again,” Public I, July 2003, 1, 4.

121 Wigfield, “Bear Stearns Analyst.”

122 Mark Wigfield, “Top FCC Aide to Become Lobbyist for Broadcasters’ Assoc.,” Dow Jones Newswires, 8 December 2003.

123 Nichols, “The FCC Rejects Public Interest.”

124 Thane Peterson, “Why the FCC Needs a New Chief,” Business Week, 9 September 2003.

125 Federal Communications Commission, “Statement of Commissioner Michael J. Copps.”

126 Jonathan S. Adelstein, “Big mass and Big media,” Media Institute.

127 “Chicago Says No to Dereg,” Broadcasting & Cable, 19 May 2003, 12.

128 Dante Chinni, “Media Drop Ball on FCC Rules Changes,” Christian Science Monitor, 10 June 2003.

129 “FCC Chairman Defends Position ahead of Media Rules Vote,” 28 May 2003,http://www.cnn.com/; Powell, “Remarks of Michael J. Powell,” Media Institute.

130 Annie Lawson, “US Media Dig Deep for Politicians,” Guardian, 7 April 2003.

131 Tim Grieve, “Fox News: The Inside Story,” 31 October 2003,http://www.salon.com/.

132 Alex Ben Block, “FCC: The Fix Was In,” Television Week, 9 June 2003, 8.

133 Bernard Weinraub, “CBS Is Reconsidering Mini-Series on Reagan,” New York Times, 4 November 2003.

134 James Harding, “CBS Pulls Reagan Biopic After Lobbying,” Financial Times, 5 November 2003.

135 “The New Fairness Doctrine,” Broadcasting & Cable, 3 November 2003, 40.

136 Ron Orol, “FCC to Vote on Media Rules,” 15 April 2003, http://www.thedeal.com/.

137 “FCC, Powell Must Bring the Public into the Process,” Television Week, 21 April 2003, 8.

138 David Ho, “FCC Democrats Frustrated on Media Review,” Associated Press dispatch, 10 May 2003.

139 Stephen Labaton, “F.C.C. Vote on Media Ownership Unlikely to Be Delayed,” New York Times, 14 May 2003.

140 “Ownership Protestors March in 14 Cities,” Hollywood Reporter, 30 May 2003.

141 Consumer Federation of America and Consumers Union, “Consumer Groups Charge FCC Analysis Supporting Media Ownership Rules Is Fundamentally Flawed,” news release, 21 July 2003. The full report is Mark Cooper, Abracadabra! Hocus-Pocus! Making Media Market Power Disappear with the FCC's Diversity Index, Consumer Federation of America and Consumers Union, July 2003.

142 “Statement of Michael J. Copps.”

143 Federal Communications Commission, “Statement of Jonathan S. Adelstein.”

144 Bill McConnell, “Tauzin's Heir Apparent Seen as Cable's Friend,” Broadcasting & Cable, 17 November 2003, 8.

145 Demetri Sevastopulo, “Senators Deploy Veto to Attack Media Rules,” Financial Times, 16 July 2003.

146 Dominic Timms, “US Media Bill Faces Further Revolt,” 16 July 2003, media.guardian.co.uk/.

147 William Safire, “Regulate the Media,” New York Times, 16 June 2003.

148 Brooks Boliek, “House Panel Votes to Roll Back Ownership Cap,” Hollywood Reporter, 16 July 2003; see also http://www.cbc-raleigh.com/capcom/news/2003/corporate_03/fcc_congress/fcc_congress.htm.

149 Jube Shiver Jr., Richard Simon, and Edmund Sanders, “FCC Ruling Puts Rivals on the Same Wavelength,” Los Angeles Times, 9 June 2003.

150 Richard Simon and Janet Hook, “FCC Rule May Bring a Veto Standoff,” Los Angeles Times, 25 July 2003.

151 Yochi J. Dreazen, “Democrats Seize on FCC Role,” Wall Street Journal, 4 June 2003, http://online.wsj.com/.

152 Pew Research Center for the People and the Press, Strong Opposition to Media Cross-Ownership Emerges, survey, 13 July 2003; see also Dan Trigoboff, “New FCC Rules Get Thumbs Down,” Broadcasting & Cable, 21 July 2003, 22.

153 “[Industry-Sponsored] Survey Finds Public Tuning Out FCC Debate,” Hollywood Reporter, 3 September 2003.

154 Peter J. Howe, “FCC Chief Defends Changes in Media Ownership Rules,” Boston Globe, 11 June 2003; Mark Jurkowitz, “FCC Chairman: Consolidation Hasn't Inhibited Variety, Fairness,” Boston Globe, 17 April 2003.

155 Stephen Labaton, “F.C.C. Chief Talks of Frustration and Surprise,” New York Times, 22 September 2003.

156 Craig Rimlinger, “Feingold Leads Charge against New FCC Rules,” Capital Times (wi), 16 July 2003.

157 Rep. David Price in discussion with the author, 25 September 2003.

158 Brooks Boliek, “FCC Hill-Bent for Grilling,” Hollywood Reporter, 4 June 2003.

159 Susan Crabtree, “Networks Move to Foil Pols on FCC Regs,” Daily Variety, 14 July 2003, 35.

160 John F. Sturm, memo to NAA Publishers, NAA, 4 August 2003.

161 “NAB About-Face on FCC Ownership Rules,” TV Week e-mail alert, 9 July 2003.

162 Simon and Hook, “FCC Rule.”

163 “Powell Fights Back,” 7 July 2003, http://www.tvtechnology.com/.

164 “FCC Sets June 2 Ownership Hearing,” Television Week, 31 March 2003, 4; Minority Media and Telecommunications Council, “MMTC Endorses FCC Diversity Advisory Committee,” news release, 27 May 2003.

165 Brian Lowry, “Powell's Doomed Power Play,” Variety, 29 September–5 October 2003, 22.

166 David Ho, “FCC to Study Industry-Sponsored Trips,” Associated Press dispatch, 2 September 2003.

167 Mark Wigfield, “FCC Suffers Court Setback on Media Ownership Rules,” Wall Street Journal, 4 September 2003.

168 James F. Goodmon, “Statement Following Michael Powell's News Conference,” (Statement, Raleigh, NC, 21 August 2003).

169 Ted Hearn, “Tauzin, Upton Warn Money Panel on FCC,” Multichannel News, 14 July 2003.

170 Bill McConnell, “Ready, Aim, Re-Reg,” Broadcasting & Cable, 21 July 2003, 1, 48.

171 Frank James, “Battle Over FCC Rules on Media Ownership,” Seattle Times, 10 August 2003.

172 Simon and Hook, “FCC Rule a.”

173 Office of Senator Fritz Hollings, statement, 25 November 2003.

174 Doug Halonen, “Ownership Cap Deal Angers Some Lawmakers,” Television Week, 1 December 2003, 77.

175 David Firestone, “Senate Won't Vote on Spending Until 2004,” New York Times, 10 December 2003.

176 Stephen Labaton, “F.C.C. Plan to Ease Curbs on Big Media Hits Senate Snag,” New York Times, 17 September 2003.

177 Bill McConnell, “Ownership Reg Faces Murky Outcome,” Broadcasting & Cable, 22 September 2003, 3.

178 Ibid.

179 Wigfield, “FCC Suffers Court Setback.”

180 Stephen Labaton, “U.S. Court Blocks Plan to Ease Rule on Media Owners,” New York Times, 4 September 2003.

181 Lou Dobbs Tonight, CNN, 2 December 2003, http://www.cnn.com/CNN/Programs/lou.dobbs.tonight/.