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Notes
1 OPCW, “OPCW by the Numbers,” April 30, 2019, <www.opcw.org/media-centre/opcw-numbers>.
2 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on Their Destruction, April 10, 1972.
3 Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on Their Destruction, September 27, 2005, Article I (a).
4 Swiss Federal Office for Civil Protection, Annual Report 2018, Spiez Laboratory, Bern, May 2019, pp. 18–20. See also the earlier discussions in “Spiez Convergence 2016,” <www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/Science_Technology/Diplomats_Programme/20161130-S_T_Diplomats-Spiez_Convergence.pdf>.
5 An unclassified US intelligence report summary states that “1,429 people were killed in the chemical weapons attack, including at least 426 children, though this assessment will certainly evolve as we obtain more information.” “Government Assessment of the Syrian Government’s Use of Chemical Weapons on August 21, 2013,” the White House, August 30, 2013, <https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2013/08/30/government-assessment-syrian-government-s-use-chemical-weapons-august-21>. Other reports have disputed this US casualty figure, estimates ranging from about 250 to 1,750 casualties.
6 “Chemical weapons, specifically sarin, were found to have been used in multiple incidents during the conflict” between mid-2013 and January 2014. UN Human Rights Council, “Report of the Independent International Commission of Inquiry on the Syrian Arab Republic,” A/HRC/25/65, February 12, 2014, <www.refworld.org/docid/53182eed4.html>. A Washington Post article lists four pre-Ghouta chemical-weapons attacks in Khan al-Assal, Adra, Sheik Maksoud, and Soraqeb with a few dozen deaths in total. Masuma Ahuja, “A Partial List of Syria’s Suspected Chemical Weapons Attacks This Year,” Washington Post, August 21, 2013, <www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2013/08/21/a-partial-list-of-syrias-suspected-chemical-weapons-attacks-this-year/?utm_term=.f122e0c6b10b>.
7 Paul F. Walker, “Syrian Chemical Weapons Destruction: Taking Stock and Looking Ahead,” Arms Control Today, December 2014, <www.armscontrol.org/ACT/2014_12/Features/Syrian-Chemical-Weapons-Destruction-Taking-Stock-And-Looking-Ahead>. See also Philipp C. Bleek and Nicholas J. Kramer, “Eliminating Syria’s Chemical Weapons: Implications for Addressing Nuclear, Biological, and Chemical Threats,” Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 23, Nos. 1–2 (2016), <www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/10736700.2016.1196853>.
8 Columb Strack, “The Evolution of the Islamic State’s Chemical Weapons Efforts,” CTC Sentinel, Vol. 10, No. 9 (2017), <https://ctc.usma.edu/the-evolution-of-the-islamic-states-chemical-weapons-efforts/>.
9 This estimate of the North Korean chemical-weapon stockpile is cited in Ministry of National Defense, “2016 Defense White Paper,” Republic of Korea, <www.mnd.go.kr/user/mndEN/upload/pblictn/PBLICTNEBOOK_201705180357180050.pdf>, p. 34.
10 See Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 5, No. 3 (2008), <www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10736709808436720?needAccess=true>; Avner Cohen, “Israel and Chemical/Biological Weapons: History, Deterrence, and Arms Control,” Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 8, No. 3 (2001), <www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10736700108436862>.
11 Documents from the Fourth Review Conference are archived at <www.opcw.org/resources/documents/conference-states-parties/fourth-review-conference>.
12 Reports from the JIM can be found at <https://opcw.unmissions.org/mission-updates>.
13 See OPCW, “Decision: Addressing the Threat from Chemical Weapons Use,” C-SS-4/DEC.3, June 27, 2018, <www.opcw.org/media-centre/featured-topics/decision-addressing-threat-chemical-weapons-use>.
14 See, in particular, section 4.5.2, “The Post-Cold War Decade, in Preventing Chemical Weapons, pp. 83–84; Marie Chevrier, “The Biological Weapons Convention: The Protocol that Almost Was,” in Trevor Findlay and Oliver Meier, eds., Verification Yearbook 2001 (London: VERTIC, 2001), pp. 79–97.
15 World Health Organization, Public Health Response to Chemical and Biological Weapons, 2nd edn. (Geneva, 2004), p. 35, cited in Preventing Chemical Weapons, p. 95. John D. Sislin documents the use of chemical weapons during the interwar period (1919–31) in “Chemical Warfare in the Interwar Period: Insights for the Present?” Nonproliferation Review, Vol. 25, Nos. 3–4 (2018), pp. 185–202.
16 UN General Assembly, Resolution 35/144C, December 12, 1980; Resolution 37/98D, December 12, 1982; Resolution 42/37C, November 30, 1987, cited in Preventing Chemical Weapons, p. 136.
17 United Nations, Security Council, Resolution 1540 (2004), S/RES/1540, April 28, 2004, cited in Preventing Chemical Weapons, p. 124.
18 OPCW, Report of the First Session of the Advisory Board on Education and Outreach, ABEO-1/1, April 29, 2016, <www.opcw.org/sites/default/files/documents/ABEO/abeo-1-01_e_.pdf).
19 OPCW, Note by the Technical Secretariat, “The OPCW in 2025: Ensuring a World Free of Chemical Weapons,” Office of Strategy and Policy, S/1252/2015, March 6, 2015, p. 33, cited in Preventing Chemical Weapons, p. 605.
20 Preventing Chemical Weapons, Chapter 21, “Conclusion and Recommendations,” pp. 621–41.