SPACE NUCLEAR REACTORS: HISTORY AND EMERGING POLICY ISSUES

Abstract

Since the early 1950s, nuclear reactors have been periodically advocated for use in space. Recently, there has been a resurgence in promoting nuclear reactors as a viable and necessary component to future space exploration. This article describes various nuclear power sources for space use, explains the desirability of space reactors relative to other forms of power generation, examines the history of their development and use, and considers the difficulties presented for future engineering and production. It demonstrates how current space policy is deficient with regard to regulating the expected development and use of nuclear reactors in space. Because of the extended time frame required for development and testing, a comprehensive policy should be created to allow for the safe and publicly acceptable use of space-based reactors. To that end, the report concludes with three recommendations to advance space nuclear reactor policy.

Keywords:

• Space nuclear reactor
• Radioisotope thermoelectric generator
• Radiation
• Highly enriched uranium
• Plutonium
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
• Space weapons

The author would like to thank Dr. James Clay Moltz for his continued support and feedback in strengthening this report.

Notes

1. See, for example, the Web Sites of the Global Network Against Weapons and Nuclear Power in Space, <www.space4peace.org/index.htm>, and the Nuclear Policy Research Institute, <www.nuclearpolicy.org/index.cfm>.

2. See Steven A. Mirmina and David J. Den Herder, "Nuclear Power Sources and Future Space Exploration," Chicago Journal of International Law 6 (Summer 2005), p. 174.

3. James Powell, George Maise, and John Paniagua, "Is NTP the Key to Exploring Space?" Aerospace America (Jan. 2004), p. 41<www.aiaa.org/aerospace/images/articleimages/pdf/maisejanuary.04.pdf>.

4. Committee on Advanced Nuclear Systems, National Research Council, Advanced Nuclear Systems for Portable Power in Space (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1983), p. 9.

5. Mirmina and Herder, "Nuclear Power Sources," p. 152; Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology, Program Overview, "Space Radioisotope Power Systems: New Horizons Mission (Pluto)," Oct. 2002, p. 2 <www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/MMRTG_Oct2002.pdf>.

6. See Ross McCluney, "Responses to NASA Claims That Solar Can't Work for the Cassini Space Probe," Global Network Against Weapons and Nuclear Power in Space, undated, <www.space4peace.org/cassini/solar.htm>.

7. "Nuclear Propulsion and Power for Space," Aerospace America (Nov. 2004), p. 33 <www.aiaa.org/aerospace/images/articleimages/pdf/roundtablenovember04.pdf>; Robert Rosen and A. Dan Schnyer, "Civilian Uses of Nuclear Reactors in Space," Science & Global Security 1 (1989), p. 159.

8. "Could NASA Get To Pluto Faster? Space Expert Says Yes-By Thinking Nuclear," SpaceDaily, Jan. 30, 2006, <www.spacedaily.com/reports/Could_NASA_Get_To_Pluto_Faster_Space_Expert_Says_Yes_By_Thinking_Nuclear.html>.

9. Committee on Human Exploration in Space, National Research Council, Human Exploration of Space: A Review of NASA's 90-Day Study and Alternatives (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 1990), p. 15, <www.nap.edu/books/NI000546/html/>.

10. See Rosen, "Civilian Uses," pp. 150-153. On Dec. 4, 2006, NASA announced plans to establish a lunar base sometime after 2020. NASA officials expressed a preference for a location at the South Pole because it is almost always bathed in sunlight, facilitating the use of solar energy to power the base and enabling it to live "off the land." See Marc Kaufman, "NASA Plans Lunar Outpost," Washington Post, Dec. 5, 2006, p. A1.

11. Rosen, "Civilian Uses," Figure 3, p. 152.

12. Mirmina, "Nuclear Power Sources," p. 151. New-generation RTGs, known as Stirling Radioisotope Generators, use a metallic piston to produce an energy output increase of approximately four times that of current RTG technology. See Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology, Program Overview, "Space Radioisotope Power Systems: Stirling Radioisotope Generator," April 2002, <www.ne.doe.gov/pdfFiles/Stirling.pdf>; Ben Iannotta, "A Nuclear Jump-Start for Space Power," Aerospace America (Aug. 2002), <www.aiaa.org/aerospace/Article.cfm?issuetocid=244&ArchiveIssueID=29>; and National Aeronautics and Space Administration, National Environmental Policy Act; Advanced Radioisotope Power Systems, Federal Register 71 (Jan. 5, 2006), p. 625 <www.epa.gov/fedrgstr/EPA-IMPACT/2006/Jan./Day-05/i8280.htm>.

13. Office of Nuclear Energy, Science, and Technology, "Space Fission Reactor Power Systems: Their Use and Safety," Program Overview, April 2002, p. 1 <www.aboutnuclear.org/docs/space/readmore/fissiontechsafety.pdf>.

14. Planning and Human Systems, Inc., Atomic Power in Space: A History, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/NE/32117-H1, March 1987, p. 37.

15. Planning and Human Systems, Inc., Atomic Power in Space: A History, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/NE/32117-H1, March 1987, p. 8.

16. Planning and Human Systems, Inc., Atomic Power in Space: A History, U.S. Dept. of Energy, DOE/NE/32117-H1, March 1987, pp. 8-9.

17. Planning and Human Systems, Inc., Atomic Power, p. 19.

18. G.L. Kulcinski, Lecture 39 Course Notes, Nuclear Electronic Effects Program NEEP: 602, Spring 2000, Fusion Technology Institute, University of Wisconsin.

19. "Space: A History," American Nuclear Society Nuclear Science and Technology Web Site, <www.aboutnuclear.org/view.cgi?fC=Space,History>.

20. "NERVA (Nuclear Engine for Rocket Vehicle Application)," the Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy and Spaceflight, <www.daviddarling.info/encyclopedia/N/NERVA.html>.

21. Federation of American Scientists (FAS), "Strategic Defense Initiative," FAS Nuclear Resources, <www.fas.org/nuke/space/c06sdi_1.htm>.

22. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), "Prometheus Power and Propulsion," in President's FY2007 Budget Request, <www.nasa.gov/pdf/142458main_FY07_budget_full.pdf>, SAE ESMD 3-12.

23. Timothy Varfolomeyev, "Soviet Rocketry that Conquered Space," Spaceflight 42 (Oct. 2000), p. 432.

24. Timothy Varfolomeyev, "Soviet Rocketry that Conquered Space," Spaceflight 42 (Oct. 2000), p. 433.

25. Asif Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 2003), p. 318.

26. See Asif Siddiqi, Sputnik and the Soviet Space Challenge (Gainesville, FL: University of Florida Press, 2003), p. 318.

27. Varfolomeyev, "Soviet Rocketry," p. 434.

28. Siddiqi, Sputnik, p. 389.

29. Based on information given in Table 3 of Steven Aftergood, "Background on Space Nuclear Power," Science & Global Security 1 (1989), p. 97, and Norman Friedman, Seapower and Space: From the Dawn of the Missile Age to Net-Centric Warfare (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2000), pp. 158-159.

30. Friedman, Seapower and Space, p. 157.

31. Friedman, Seapower and Space, p. 159.

32. See Uranium Information Centre, Ltd., "Nuclear Reactors for Space: Briefing Paper #82," May. 2006.

33. Friedman, Seapower and Space, p. 160.

34. Ballistic Missile Defense Organization (BMDO), "Topaz II Proves To Be Gem For International Tech Transfer," in 1995 Technology Applications Report, p. 34<www.mda.mil/mdalink/pdf/top.pdf>.

35. See Ivan Ivanov, "Russia Approves Space Nuclear Reactor Development Plan," Itar-Tass, Feb. 9, 1998; "Russian Minister Says Nuclear Industry Potential 'Enormous,'" Interfax, Jan. 10, 2003, in BBC Monitoring International Reports; "Russia Seeks International Backing for Engine to Take Man to Mars," Itar-Tass, March 1, 2005, in BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union; "Russian Firm Calls for Further Space Nuclear Power Research," Interfax, March 30, 2005, in BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union; and "Russian Scientists Design Floating Nuclear Power Plant," Channel One TV (Moscow), Dec. 26, 2005, in BBC Monitoring Former Soviet Union.

36. Committee on Advanced Nuclear Systems, Advanced Nuclear, p. 7 and "Nuclear Propulsion," p. 33.

37. Committee on Advanced Nuclear Systems, Advanced Nuclear, p. 23.

38. "Nuclear Propulsion," p. 30.

39. "Nuclear Propulsion," p. 30.

40. "Nuclear Propulsion," p. 30.

41. "Nuclear Propulsion," pp. 26, 33.

42. An additional issue that has been raised is the potential proliferation danger if a reactor powered by U-235 were to accidentally return to Earth. See Joel Primack, "Gamma Ray Observations of Orbiting Nuclear Reactors," Science 244 (April 28, 1989), p. 408, and Joel Primack, Nancy E. Abrams, Steven Aftergood, David Hafemeister, Daniel O. Hirsch, Robert Mozley, Oleg F. Prilutsky, Stanislav N. Rodionov, and Roald Z. Sagdeev, "Space Reactor Arms Control," Science and Global Security 1 (1989), p. 65. However, this seems to be a minute risk for several reasons, including: the unlikely possibility that it would land in a country or region in which it could be collected by terrorists, or by a country that is not governed by the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons; the near impossibility of predicting and determining the debris impact location without significant technological systems (excluding eyewitness verification); the difficulty and hazard of recovering toxic space debris in general, even if the reactor had not yet been activated before returning to Earth; and the fact that the debris remains under jurisdiction of the launching country according to Article VIII of the Outer Space Treaty.

43. See White House, National Security Council, "Scientific or Technological Experiments with Possible Large-Scale Adverse Environmental Effects and Launch of Nuclear Systems into Space," PD/NSC-25, Dec. 14, 1977, <www.jimmycarterlibrary.org/documents/pddirectives/pd25.pdf>; and Mirmina, "Nuclear Power Sources," p. 167.

44. SRS Technologies, Space Applications of Radioactive Materials, Office of Commercial Space Transportation Licensing Programs Division, Huntsville, June 1990, p. 13 <www.faa.gov/about/office_org/headquarters_offices/ast/media/radedits.pdf>.

45. See White House, PD/NSC-25.

46. See Victoria Friedensen, "Protest Space: A Study of Technological Choice, Perception of Risk, and Space Exploration," Master's thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Oct. 11, 1999, pp. 7-10. Based on her study of the Cassini protests, Friedensen predicts that the use of nuclear power to reach Mars could become a major public debate with possible consequences in a presidential race.

47. All of these documents are available at "United Nations Treaties and Principles on Space Law," UN Office for Outer Space Affairs, <www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/SpaceLaw/treaties.html>. For a much more comprehensive review of the particular points relevant to SNRs in these agreements, see Mirmina, "Nuclear Power Sources," pp. 158-165.

48. UN General Assembly, "Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources in Outer Space," A/RES/47/68, Dec. 14, 1992, <www.unoosa.org/oosa/SpaceLaw/nps.html>.

49. See Committee on Advanced Nuclear Systems, Advanced Nuclear Systems, p. 30, and Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA, NASA Safety Standard: Guidelines and Assessment Procedures for Limiting Orbital Debris, NSS 1740, Aug. 1995, pp. 3-8.

50. See Friedensen, Protest Space, p. 91.

51. James R. Downey, Anthony M. Forestier, and David E. Miller, Flying Reactors: The Political Feasibility of Nuclear Power in Space, CADRE Paper No. 22 (Maxwell Air Force Base, ALA: Air University Press, April 2005), p. 53.

52. "Nuclear Propulsion," p. 37.

53. White House, "U.S. National Space Policy," National Security Presidential Directive XX, Aug. 31, 2006, available at <www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/space.html>.

54. This recommendation is based upon: Office of Safety and Mission Assurance, NASA Safety Standard; Deparment of Defense, Department of Defense Instruction, DODI 3100.12, Sept. 14, 2000; and UN General Assembly, "Principles Relevant to the Use of Nuclear Power Sources," Principle 3, Subsection 2.

55. See Downey et al., Flying Reactors, pp. 10, 19; and Friedensen, Protest Space, p. 94. Downey, Forestier, and Miller believe that a space nuclear power program requires an engagement strategy that informs the public, and Friedensen recommends including public discussion in order to weaken arguments against the use of nuclear technologies based on concerns of global risks.

56. "Nuclear Propulsion," p. 36. See also, Peter S. Adler and Janesse Brewer, "Project Prometheus Stakeholder Interviews: Findings and Recommendations," Final Report, June 2004, available at the Keystone Center Web Site, <www.keystone.org/spp/documents/FINAL%20PPP%20Report%20June%202004spc1test.PDF>. Additional information on the project can be found at <www.keystone.org/spp/env-space-science.html>.