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ABSTRACT
The Arctic Council (AC) was created with multiple competing agendas. Russia played a crucial role in its founding and has been an indispensable member since then. I consider the evolution of Russian participation in order to investigate the juncture of regime type, regional international organization, and environmental protection. How has Russia contributed to climate change policies through the AC’s Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG)? I argue that issues connected to environmental protection and regional cooperation can be used by democratic and non-democratic states in order to leverage influence beyond the region itself and to advance broad geostrategic concerns.
Acknowledgments
The author would like to thank two anonymous reviewers and Dmitry Gorenburg for helpful comments during the preparation of this manuscript. She would also like to thank Liselotte Odgaard and M. Taylor Fravel for numerous exchanges that have influenced her thinking on Arctic matters and Grace Protasiewicz for her assistance with the manuscript's preparation. All errors remain the author’s own.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. See Arctic Finland, “The Rovaniemi Process: The Beginning of the Arctic Era,” https://www.arcticfinland.fi/news/The-Rovaniemi-Process-The-Beginning-of-the-Arctic-Era/39969/15e81f13-69fe-4972-9668-a4d0b578318d#.
2. See Arctic Council, “The Workhorses Behind the Success,” https://arctic-council.org/en/news/the-workhorses-behind-the-success/
3. See Arctic Council, “Russia Submits Seven New Projects to the Arctic Council,” https://arctic.ru/international/20200611/947416.html
4. See Arctic Council, “The Snowflake International Arctic Station—A Hub for Energy Innovation and Cultural Exchange.” August 21, 2020, https://arctic-council.org/en/news/the-snowflake-international-arctic-station-a-hub-for-energy-innovation-and-cultural-exchange/
5. See Atle Staalesen, “In Swaggering Move on Remote Arctic Tundra, Russia Intends to Show Off a Life without Oil,” The Barents Observer, January 30, 2020, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2020/01/swaggering-move-remote-arctic-tundra-russia-intends-show-life-without-oil
6. Ibid.
7. See Atle Staalesen, “Under the Surface of Russia’s Arctic Super-Region Is a Looming Disaster,” The Barents Observer, January 17, 2019, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/node/4894
8. Ibid
9. For a discussion of the problem of Hungary in the European Union, see Yasmeen Serhan, “The EU Watches as Hungary Kills Democracy,” The Atlantic, April 2, 2020, https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/04/europe-hungary-viktor-orban-coronavirus-covid19-democracy/609313/
10. See, International Maritime Organization, “Shipping in Polar Waters” https://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/HotTopics/Pages/polar-default.aspx
11. See “Sami Parliaments, EU Concerned by Russia Shutting Down Indigenous Rights Group,” The Moscow Times, November 13, 2019, available at https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/11/13/sami-parliaments-eu-concerned-by-russia-shutting-down-indigenous-rights-group-a68153
12. See Michael Scollon, “At Risk: Russia’s Indigenous Peoples Sound Alarm on Loss of Arctic, Traditional Way of Life,” Radio Free Liberty, November 28, 2020, https://www.rferl.org/a/russia-arctic-indigenous-peoples-losing-traditional-way-life-climate-change/30973726.html. See also The Barents Observer, “Russia Is Removing Critical Voices Ahead of Arctic Council Chairmanship, Indigenous Expert Claims,” December 2, 2019, available at https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2019/12/02/russia-is-removing-critical-voices-ahead-of-arctic-council-chairmanship-indigenous-expert-claims-a68415
13. See Thomas Nilsen, “Civil society and media freedom on agenda as Norway takes over chair of the Barents Euro-Arctic Council,” The Barents Observer, October 4, 2019, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/civil-society-and-media/2019/10/civil-society-and-media-freedom-agenda-norway-takes-over-chair
14. Atle Staalesen, “Russia Will Not Talk Militarization during Its Chairmanship in Arctic Council,” The Barents Observer, May 13, 2021, Kirkenes, Norway, available at https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/2021/05/russia-will-not-address-militarization-during-its-chairmanship-arctic-council (accessed 6/3/21).
15. The so-called “Arctic Eight” are the five littoral Arctic states plus Iceland, Sweden, and Finland, which have sovereign territory in the Arctic circle where the sun is seen above the horizon for 24 continuous hours at least once per year (and visible at midnight) and below the horizon for 24 hours at least once a year (and not visible at noon). The same is true in the Antarctic Circle, the equivalent region in the south.
16. “Putin Invites Foreign Partners to Join in Development of the Arctic,” Maritime Executive, April 9, 2019, https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/putin-invites-foreign-partners-to-join-in-development-of-the-arctic. See also (Yun Citation2019)
17. Arctic Council, “Russian Federation,” https://arctic-council/en/about/states/russian-federation For an analysis of the document with respect to indigenous peoples, see (Gorbunova Citation2021).
18. See Atle Staalesen, “Behind Putin’s New Arctic Strategy Lies a Rude Quest for Natural Resources,” The Barents Observer, October 30, 2020, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/climate-crisis/2020/10/behind-putins-new-arctic-strategy-lies-rude-quest-natural-resources
19. Ibid.
20. See Atle Staalesen, “Putin Reshuffles Top Team on Environment and Arctic,” The Barents Observer, November 9, 2020, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/arctic/2020/11/putin-reshuffles-top-team-environment-and-arctic
21. Atle Staalesen, “Moscow Signals It Will Make National Security a Priority in Arctic Council,” The Barents Observer, October 15, 2020, https://thebarentsobserver.com/en/security/2020/10/moscow-signals-it-will-make-security-situation-priority-arctic-council. For a review of Russian officials involved in broader Arctic policy, see (Conley et al. Citation2021, 21–22).
22. See Arctic Council, “Russia to Offer Arctic Council Countries Its Own Cross-Border Cooperation Program,” https://arctic.ru/international/20201001/982732.html
23. See Reuters Staff, “U.S. Rejects Interference by Non-Arctic Countries in Polar Region: Official,” May 2, 2019, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-pompeo-arctic/u-s-rejects-interference-by-non-arctic-countries-in-polar-region-official-idUSKCN1S8299. See also (Lanteigne Citation2020, 29).
24. See MENADO, “Maine Will Host the Senior Arctic Officials (SAO) Meeting of the Arctic Council,” October 4–6, 2016. http://www.maineandthearctic.com
25. See interview with H. E. Kersti Kaljuland, “Estonia in the Arctic Council? What Can It Offer?” Arctic Circle Virtual, https://youtu.be/GDJfSZqWu44. See also Mathiew Leiser, “Estonia to Apply for Observer Status within Arctic Council,” Eye on the Arctic, https://www.rcinet.ca/eye-on-the-arctic/2019/11/14/estonia-to-apply-for-observer-status-within-arctic-council/