Stem Cell-Derived in Vitro Models for Investigating the Effects of Endocrine Disruptors on Developing Neurons and Neuroendocrine Cells

Abstract

Neuroendocrine cells are a set of specialized hormone-releasing neurons that control most vital functions in humans and wildlife, such as growth, reproduction, metabolism, and stress responses. Increasing evidence points to neuroendocrine cells as the primary neuronal target of endocrine disruptors. Endocrine disruption appears to be most significant during prenatal and early postnatal development. However, limitations with traditional cell culture models of neuronal development led to a lack of understanding regarding the mechanisms by which endocrine disruptors affect neurodevelopment. In recent years, Stem Cell-derived neuronal models have become available and may offer distinct advantages over other in vitro model systems for investigating the effects of endocrine disruptors on the developing brain. Further, recently new models of Stem Cell-derived neuroendocrine cells that may provide more effective ways for studying the effects of endocrine disruptors directly on developing neuroendocrine cells in vitro were developed. This constitutes a review of currently available cell models of developing neurons that have been used to investigate in vitro effects of endocrine disruptors on developing brain. The review also presents recently developed models of Stem Cell-derived neuroendocrine cells that might be used to investigate in vitro effects of endocrine disruptors and their mechanisms of action directly on the developing neuroendocrine cells.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to the editors for providing me the opportunity to summarize this research in this special issue. I am also grateful to my undergraduate students for their technical help with some of the research described in the text. I also thank Dr. Dionysia Theodosis for her gift of the antibody against chromogranin A, and Dr. Kiowa Bower and Dr. Mietek Kolipinski for their critical reading of this article.