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Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air were measured in a municipality where sugarcane plantations are extensive, at three sites, one in the city center and two in rural localities. Twenty-four-hour sampling was done using PS1 PUF samplers from Andersen Instruments Inc., at least 1 day per month per site, from June 2009 to October 2009. The chemical analyses were performed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS) for the 16 most toxic PAHs. The incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILTR) by inhalation was determined by the Monte Carlo method for the urban population using Crystal Ball software. The total concentration of the 16 PAHs at all sites varied from 6.2 to 65.7 ng m−3, with an average of 25.9 ± 18.2 ng m−3. The average concentrations per site were 14.1 ± 13.0 ng m−3 at rural site B, 20.7 ± 11.5 ng m−3 at rural site A, and 36.1 ± 22.7 ng m−3 at the central site. The cancer risk for infants, children, and adults was approximately 14%, 25%, and 61% of the total IRLT, respectively. The mean (95% upper probability limit [95% UPL]) values were 1.2 × 10−7 (2.2 × 10−7) for infants, 2.2 × 10−7 (4.1 × 10−7) for children, and 8.9 × 10−7 (1.1 × 10−6) for adults. Although the three most abundant PAHs found were phenanthrene, fluoranthene, and pyrene, the three most important contributions to the incremental risk of cancer came from benzo[a]pyrene, benzo[b]fluoranthene, and naphthalene. Compared with the risks in big cities such as São Paulo, this would be low, but not negligible. Analysis of ratios of PAHs according to the literature showed that vehicle exhaust and biomass burning, including sugarcane burning, seem to be the most important contributors to PAH concentrations in the central area of Araraquara City.
Implications:
The growth of biofuel use worldwide, especially ethanol, together with preharvesting burning practice, is cause of concern with regard to possible health effects, due to increased air pollution levels in cities in regions where sugarcane plantation and processing are intensive. This paper shows that the risk of cancer from PAH inhalation in an urban area surrounded by sugarcane agriculture was of the same order of magnitude as the tolerable risk value of 10−6. As other classical and hazardous pollutants are also present, care should be taken to keep pollution as low as possible to protect human health.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Joao V. de Assuncao
Joao V. de Assuncao, Adelaide C. Nardocci and Helena Ribeiro are professors, Célia R. Pesquero holds a Ph.D. degree and is a technician, Nilson S. Soares is a technician, and Ana P. Francisco is a Ph.D. student in the Environmental Health Department at the School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Célia R. Pesquero
Joao V. de Assuncao, Adelaide C. Nardocci and Helena Ribeiro are professors, Célia R. Pesquero holds a Ph.D. degree and is a technician, Nilson S. Soares is a technician, and Ana P. Francisco is a Ph.D. student in the Environmental Health Department at the School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Adelaide C. Nardocci
Joao V. de Assuncao, Adelaide C. Nardocci and Helena Ribeiro are professors, Célia R. Pesquero holds a Ph.D. degree and is a technician, Nilson S. Soares is a technician, and Ana P. Francisco is a Ph.D. student in the Environmental Health Department at the School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Ana P. Francisco
Joao V. de Assuncao, Adelaide C. Nardocci and Helena Ribeiro are professors, Célia R. Pesquero holds a Ph.D. degree and is a technician, Nilson S. Soares is a technician, and Ana P. Francisco is a Ph.D. student in the Environmental Health Department at the School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Nilson S. Soares
Joao V. de Assuncao, Adelaide C. Nardocci and Helena Ribeiro are professors, Célia R. Pesquero holds a Ph.D. degree and is a technician, Nilson S. Soares is a technician, and Ana P. Francisco is a Ph.D. student in the Environmental Health Department at the School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.
Helena Ribeiro
Joao V. de Assuncao, Adelaide C. Nardocci and Helena Ribeiro are professors, Célia R. Pesquero holds a Ph.D. degree and is a technician, Nilson S. Soares is a technician, and Ana P. Francisco is a Ph.D. student in the Environmental Health Department at the School of Public Health, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.