Public awareness, perceptions and attitudes on air pollution and its health effects in Muscat, Oman

ABSTRACT

A survey was conducted in Muscat/Oman between February and May of 2020, with a total of 1289 respondents to investigate public knowledge, behavior, and attitudes about the air pollution via online questionnaire. We considered the disparity among gender, age and education level in four main aspects, viz. sources of access to information, knowledge and risk perception about air pollution and willingness to change and act for mitigation. Social media was a primary source of access to information regarding air pollution in Muscat. Further, the majority of the respondents were aware of the meaning of air pollution and interested in the issue of air quality, while females have a higher level of air pollution awareness than males. Over 94% of respondents were disturbed by air pollution from vehicles and other sources. Males and older participants have significantly higher level of interest about air quality information. The majority pay attention to air quality when they move outdoors but females are more susceptible than males to the effects of air pollution. Majority recognized the air pollution is always dangerous to their health, yet participants with higher education level have a higher risk perception of air pollution. Breathing contaminated air was the most common pathway of exposure to the toxic air pollutants reported by participants. Over 90% of participants care about air quality when they are performing outdoor sports activities. Most of the participants reported that they did not use public transportation to move within Muscat Governorate, their major transportation mode being private vehicle. Meanwhile, females, older participants (over 35) and postgraduate holders significantly expressed their willingness to reduce the duration of driving vehicles.

Implications: This work is the first study in the country that try to investigate perception, attitude and behavior of the public about air pollution in Muscat, the capital of Oman. Use of private vehicles is a popular mode of transportation in the city and is the major contributor to the air quality issues. Any future directions by the government toward sustainable transportation need a better understanding of people’s perception on the issue. The results show that most of the respondents were aware of air quality and related issues and they also expressed willingness to change their behavior to reduce air pollution.

Introduction

Modern cities with high population density and extreme anthropogenic activities are typically subjected to pollution emission from different sources. Air pollution is a significant environmental consequence of increasing commercial and industrial activities, particularly in large urban cities (Al-Shidi et al. 2020a). Human activities include fuel combustion from motor vehicles, heat and power generation, industrial facilities, and waste incineration (WHO 2020a). In urban areas, mainly cities, studies have shown that major anthropogenic sources of air pollution are traffic emissions and industrial processes (Kamani et al. 2018; Rajaram et al. 2014). Urbanization with its significant levels of automobile emissions and a modern lifestyle are associated to the increasing rate of respiratory allergic diseases and bronchial asthma observed over recent decades in most developed countries in comparison to the rural areas (D’Amato et al. 2016). Recent study revealed that living in the vicinity of traffic areas is a multifaceted concern representing sensitive exposure to air pollution and noise (Chen et al. 2017). Hence, people who live near roadways or who use sidewalks in urbanized cities are likely to be more exposed to traffic-related emissions (Chen et al. 2017; Duong and Lee 2011). Traffic emissions are contributing to substantial levels of particulate and gaseous air pollutants for human exposure. Previous studies have reported that frequent exposure to air pollution is associated with increased mortality from respiratory and cardiovascular disease in addition to the lung cancer (Cohen et al. 2005; Pope and Dockery 2006). According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 4.2 million deaths occur around the world every year as a result of exposure to air pollution (WHO 2020b). The particles with aerodynamic diameter less than 10 µm are classified as inhalable particles, which reach the lungs easily. Particles bigger than 2.5 µm and smaller than 10 µm can infiltrate the bronchi, while finer particles less than 2.5 µm are respirable particles and can get into the alveoli (Heyder 1986). Atmospheric particles are the mixture of solid-liquid components in solid phase and these particles differ in their physicochemical and morphological characteristics (Pipal, Kulshrestha, and Taneja 2011). Fine particulate matters can absorb toxic elements and penetrate the human body by inhalation and then accumulated in the lungs, subsequently resulting in several respiratory and cardiovascular problems (Wiseman and Zereini 2009). Breathing combustion-related fine PM even at different levels contributes to cardiorespiratory disease mortality and reduced life expectancy (Pope and Dockery 2013). Regular exposure to a specific level of particulate matter can lead to substantial health impacts such as increasing respiratory symptoms, decrease in lung function, asthma, cough, sore throat, cardiac arrhythmias, and so on (Massey et al. 2009).

Humans can be exposed to air pollution via different pathways including inhalation, ingestion and dermal contact adsorption (Al-Shidi, Al-Reasi, and Sulaiman 2020b). Muscat is the capital city of Oman located in northern-eastern part of the country. The governorate of Muscat occupies a land area of 4000 km² with a population of 1,421,409 accounting for almost 30.8% of total Oman population (NCSI 2020), which make the governorate as the most densely populated area in Oman. It is experiencing rapid socioeconomic growth noticeable via swift urbanization and industrialization. Traffic and the total number of vehicles operated in Muscat have significantly increased in recent years. In 2019, the total new driving licenses issued in Muscat itself were about 23,065 (NCSI 2020), which is a clear indication for increase in the number of private cars and the road users. This increase was associated with expanding of the roads/streets network in the Capital city. Al-Shidi, Al-Reasi, and Sulaiman (2020b) and Al-Handasah (2011) found that, there are 4193 to 5643 (vehicles/hour) passing Sultan Qaboos road, the main highway in Muscat. Apart from high usage of vehicles, Muscat has several power plants, oil and gas related industries as well as construction companies which contribute to overall emissions of pollutants like PM10, PM2.5 and heavy metals into the environment. Traffic emissions and common anthropogenic sources of air pollution in the study area along with the barren nature of the land and the spring sandstorms contribute to air pollutants that ultimately get suspended into the surrounding atmosphere. Al-Shidi, Sulaiman, and Alrubkhi (2020c) reported that, the concentration of finer particulate air pollution (PM2.5) in Muscat was 20.74 μg/m³ which is closer to the WHO (2005) standard limits. Consequently, these particulate air pollutants may enhance the risk to the public health include asthma attacks, acute and chronic bronchitis, respiratory symptoms, and premature death (Hall, Brajer, and Lurmann 2008). The annual average of PM2.5 in Muscat is 48 μg/m³ which is almost five times above the WHO standard and the annual deaths from air pollution is 944 deaths/year (WHO 2021). Therefore, the country needs to work in order to maintain better air quality in their cities with respect to the issue of elevated PM as emphasized in the sustainable development goals (SDGs) report (2019). In a study conducted by Amoatey et al. (2020), the hourly concentrations of CO were within the US EPA limits, while NOx concentration has exceeded the US EPA standard in most studied locations in Muscat. Levels of understanding and response of the public to the outdoor air pollution might be a key factor for protecting the health of urban inhabitants. Public awareness might play a significant role for promoting behavioral changes that reduce individuals’ personal exposure to air pollution and minimize personal emissions to improve air quality to encourage walking, cycling and use of public transport (WHO 2013). Additionally, public attitudes toward the risks caused via air pollution and related actions that might affect prevention and mitigation behaviors such as information seeking behavior, avoidance of polluted roads as well as acceptance of related air quality policies. Studies have reported that increasing public environmental awareness and knowledge is essential to the success of pollution prevention (Oltra and Sala 2018). Public beliefs might change individuals’ perceptions and reactions to air pollution. Previous studies documented that, some variables such as age, gender, educational level, or respiratory symptoms have been correlated with perceptions and concern about air pollution (Elliott et al. 1999). The current study evaluates the levels of public knowledge, behavior, attitude, and willingness to act among residents in Muscat governorate, Oman. Thus, the study was directed in addressing the following research questions:

Q1.Do the sources of access to information about air pollution vary among gender, age and educational levels?

Q2.Does the knowledge about air pollution vary among gender, age and educational levels?

Q3.Does the knowledge about risk of air pollution vary among gender, age and educational levels?

Q4.Does the self-prevention and mitigation actions vary among gender, age and educational levels?

Methodology

The research was conducted in Muscat, the largest city in the sultanate of Oman, investigating public knowledge of air pollution, the extent of behavioral responses to bad air quality, and attitudes toward prevention and mitigation practices. A novel online closed questionnaire was used. The survey was converted in an online form and then sent as a link through the e-mail to all participants by Human Resource Department of the targeted ministry or authority. We surveyed samples of people from public sector in Muscat. The public sector are those people who are working in the governmental ministries and authorities in Muscat area (the capital). They represented the population of public sector in Oman. We targeted the ministries and authorities that have large number of employees. These ministries and authorities were chosen by the National Center of Statistics and Information, the official body of information in Oman. The original survey questions were written in English and then translated into Arabic before it back-translated, independently, into English to check for fidelity of translation. In addition, the content of the questionnaire was validated by two academic staff and three school teachers with high qualifications. Variables were set by gender, age, and educational level to obtain a representative sample. Measures for key variables were adopted from previous studies (Chen et al. 2015; Elliott et al. 1999; Liu, Kobernus, and Liu 2017; Larijani 2010; Oltra and Sala 2018). Table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the sample. Among the 1289 participants, 66% were male and 34% were female. Most participants were between 35 and 45 (45%) age group, followed by 18–34 (33%) and 46 and more (22%) respectively. Of these, 40% hold a bachelor’s degree, 22% general diploma, 20% postgraduate, and 18% hold diploma. Survey questionnaire was implemented during four months from February to May 2020. A total of 1317 residents completed the questionnaire; however, some participants were excluded due to missing data. A total of 1289 individuals were included in the analysis. The questionnaire contained four main sections: sources of access to information on air pollution; knowledge about air pollution; risk perception of air pollution; and individuals’ prevention and mitigation actions against air pollution. The questionnaire also included socio-demographic questions (age, gender, educational level). The final version of the questionnaire contained 17 items. The questionnaire was designed as a “tool” for collecting and recording information and determining the basic attitudes/opinions of the public on air pollution and related issues. The questionnaire might have taken approximately 7–10 minutes to answer all the questions.

Table 1. General demographic characteristics of the participants (n = 1289)

	Factors	Percentage (%)
Gender	Male Female	66 34
Age	18–34 35–44 45 and more	33 45 22
Education level	General Diploma Diploma Bachelor Postgraduate	22 18 40 20

Statistical analysis

The responses were encoded into, and analyzed using, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Initially, descriptive statistics such as frequencies and percentages were calculated. Following this, differences in each section between the responses of male versus female, three different age groups and different educational levels were analyzed using Chi Squared analysis, with p < .05 as the critical value.

Results

Sources of access to information on air pollution

Table 2 shows the variation among genders, ages, and educational levels on sources to access information associated with air pollution. According to the responses of the participants, social media was the main source of access to information about air pollution. The results reveal a significant variation between male and female, around 70% of females usually get information about air quality via social media compared to 30% using other sources such as newspapers, TV and radio. While 60% of male typically get information through social media and around 40% of them from other sources. Overall, 69% of respondents in the age group of 35 to 45 normally get information through social media which is significantly higher than the other two groups using the same source (Table 2). There is significant difference between the educational levels, over 70% of bachelor’s holder usually obtain information related to air pollution through social media compared to 28% who access via other sources.

Table 2. Sources of access to information about air pollution

How do you usually get information about air quality in Muscat Governorate?
Characteristics of the participants		Social media	News paper	Sig. Level
Gender	Male	62.7%	15.2%	.003*
	Female	70.6%	11.7%
Age	18–34	66.6%	7.6%	.000*
	35–45	69.2%	14%
	46 and more	55.6%	23%
Education level	General Diploma	55.7%	17%	.000*
	Diploma	69.3%	18.7%
	Bachelor	72%	9.6%
	Postgraduate	59.4%	15%

* p ≤ 0.05.

Knowledge about air pollution and gender

Table 3 presents the respondents perceptions regarding air pollution by gender. Overall, 97% of male and 99% of female are aware what air pollution is. Around 94% of male and 96% of female are interested in the issue of air quality in the area in which they live. About 95% of male and female are concerned about the air pollution from vehicles or any other sources. The results show significant variation between male and female in the awareness of air pollution. On the other hand, nearly 45% of male and only 33% of female ‘care a lot’ regarding air quality information compared to 55% of male and around 67% of female care ‘somewhat’ about the same issue. Table 3 also shows that the male respondents significantly pay more attention to air quality information than female. Additionally, over 75% of male and female ‘always’ pay attention to the quality of the air when they go outdoors.

Table 3. Knowledge about air pollution; gender

Question	Male		Female
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Are you aware the meaning of air pollution?	97.1%	2.9%	99.2%	0.8%	.015*
Are you interested in the issue of air quality in the area in which you live in the Governorate of Muscat?	94.4%	5.6%	96.6%	3.4%	.066
Are you bothered by air pollution from vehicles or any other sources?	95.8%	4.2%	95.6%	4.4%	.479
Response category	I care a lot	I care somewhat	I care a lot	I care somewhat
In general, how would you rate yourself paying attention to air quality information?	44.6%	55.4%	33.4%	66.5%	.001*
Response category	Never	Always	Never	Always
When you go out from your house or place of work, do you pay attention to the quality of the air you are breathing?	0.7%	75.9%	1.8%	77.5%	.345

* p ≤ 0.05.

Knowledge about risk of air pollution and gender

Table 4 indicates the respondents’ perceptions regarding the risk of air pollution by gender. Overall, 56% of male participants felt uncomfortable while outdoors compared 44% did not. This percentage varied significantly where 62% of female reported they felt uncomfortable while outdoors. Only 6% of male respondents reported had ‘always’ difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution comparing with 72% had ‘sometimes’ difficulty. This percentage did not vary significantly where 8% of female had ‘always’ difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution and 22% of them had ‘never’. Generally, most respondent’s male (68%) and female (75%) recognized the air pollution is ‘always’ dangerous to their health. Roughly 79% of male and 84% of female reported that ‘breathing’ contaminated air is the main pathway of exposure to the toxic air pollutants that can pose health risks. While few respondents perceived other exposure routes including ‘ingesting’ or ‘touching’ contaminated soil and/or dust leads to exposure (Table 4). The results show significant difference between male and female respondents.

Table 4. Knowledge about risk of air pollution; gender

Question	Male		Female
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Have you ever felt uncomfortable while outdoors?	56.4%	43.6%	62.1%	37.9%	.039*
Response category	Never	Always	Never	Always
Have you had difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution?	22.1%	6.2%	21.5%	8.4%	.416
To what extent do you think that air pollution is dangerous to your health?	2%	68.6%	1.3%	74.9%	.222
Response category	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust
Do you know how people expose to the toxic air pollutants that can pose health risks?	79.3%	8.8%	84.4%	11%	.015*

* p ≤ 0.05.

Self-prevention and mitigation actions and gender

Table 5 reveals the respondent’s perceptions regarding self-prevention and mitigation actions according to males and females. Over 90% of respondents ‘care’ about air quality when doing outdoor sports activities comparing only 5% to 8% who ‘do not care.’ A 69% of men expressed their ‘willingness to accept’ reducing the duration/amount of driving vehicles imposed by the concerned authorities. This percentage varied significantly with 80% of female respondents who are more ‘willing to accept’ reduction direction by authorities. Approximately 72% of male and 64% of female participants perceived that there are actions they can take to protect themselves and reduce their exposure to air pollution. Difference between male and female in this response was significant (Table 5). Around 74% of male participants reported that they did not try using public transportation buses to move within Muscat Governorate. Only 7% of respondent’s female have used public transportation buses while most of them 93% did not use the public buses. The differences among male and female in this response were considerable and significant (Table 5). Around 66% of male and 72% of female participants ‘considered’ reducing air pollution through maintaining their car properly. For other individual behavioral changes, 12% of male and 8% of female chose to use public transportation, around 20% from totality of the respondents chose other behavioral changes such as think about sharing the car with colleagues or buying efficient cars. The difference between male and female in this variable was statistically significant (Table 5). It is very interesting to note that around 42% of participants suggested establishing controls for the use of private vehicles as a direct environmental measure to reduce air pollution. While 34% of male and 42% of female respondents suggested spraying water to remove dust from the streets. Difference between male and female participants regarding this reported suggestion was statistically significant (Table 5). The remaining percentage of the participants divided between option of encouraging the use of public transport buses and no suggestions. Around 94% of males and 97% of females reported that private car was their major transportation mode for their daily life. The difference among participants in this response was weak and insignificant (Table 5).

Table 5. Self-prevention and reduction actions; gender

Question	Male		Female
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Do you care about air quality when doing outdoor sports activities?	94.8%	5.2%	92.2%	7.8%	.057
If you are requested to reduce the duration/amount of driving your vehicle by the concerned authorities, would you accept that?	69.1%	30.9%	80.2%	19.8%	.000*
Do you think there are actions you can take to protect yourself and reduce your exposure to air pollution?	71.5%	28.5%	64.0%	36%	.021*
Have you tried using public transportation buses (like Muwasalat) to move within Muscat Governorate instead of your own car?	26.4%	73.6%	7.3%	92.7%	.000*
Response category	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation
Have you ever considered reducing air pollution through any of the following individual behavioral changes?	65.8%	12.4%	72%	7.6%	.005*
Response category	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets
If the area you live in, requires direct environmental measures, which of the following can you suggest?	42.5%	34%	42%	42%	.006*
Response category	Bus	Private car	Bus	Private car
What is your major transportation mode for your daily life?	2.3%	93.8%	1%	97.4%	.101

* p ≤ 0.05.

Knowledge about air pollution and age

Table 6 presents the respondent’s knowledge regarding air pollution by age. Around 98% of respondents are aware of what air pollution is. About 94–97% of the participants in the three age groups were interested in the issue of air quality. Overall, most respondents over 94% bothered by air pollution from vehicles or any other sources. The differences in these variables between the three age groups were negligible and insignificant. Table 6 clearly shows that the participants in the age group of 46 and above significantly pay attention to air quality information more than other two age groups. Nearly 50–67% of the respondents care ‘somewhat’ about air quality information (Table 6). Furthermore, most respondents (over 73%) ‘always’ pay attention to the quality of the air when they go outdoors while few of them (around 25%) ‘sometimes’ pay attention to the same issue. The differences in these variables between the three age groups were very weak and insignificant (Table 6).

Table 6. Knowledge about air pollution; age

Question	18–35		36–45		46 and more
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Are you aware the meaning of air pollution?	97.5%	2.5%	97.7%	2.3%	98.7%	1.3%	.557
Are you interested in the issue of air quality in the area in which you live in the Governorate of Muscat?	93.8%	6.2%	95.5%	4.5%	96.6%	3.4%	.270
Are you bothered by air pollution from vehicles or any other sources?	95.5%	4.5%	96.7%	3.3%	94.1%	5.9%	.259
Response category	I care a lot	I care somewhat	I care a lot	I care somewhat	I care a lot	I care somewhat
In general, how would you rate yourself paying attention to air quality information?	33.2%	66.7%	41.3%	58.7%	50.2%	49.8%	.001*
Response category	Never	Always	Never	Always	Never	Always
When you go out from your house or place of work, do you pay attention to the quality of the air you are breathing?	1.1%	73.8%	0.8%	77.5%	1.7%	78.4%	.753

* p ≤ 0.05.

Knowledge about risk of air pollution and age

Table 7 illustrates the respondent’s perceptions regarding the risk of air pollution according to the three age groups. Generally, 63% of participants in the first age group (18–35), 59% in the second age group (36–45) and around 51% in the last group (46 and above) felt uncomfortable while outdoors. A significant difference among the age groups in this response was obtained (Table 7). Only few respondents (5–8%) in the three age groups felt they ‘always’ had difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution. Most respondents (over 70%) in the three age groups had ‘sometimes’ felt shortness of breath due to air pollution. The differences in this variable among the age groups were insignificant. Almost 73%, 70%, and 69% of the respondents in the three age categories, respectively, perceived that the air pollution is ‘always’ dangerous to their health (Table 7). Roughly 79% of participants in the first age group (18–35) and around 82% in the two other age groups reported that breathing contaminated air is the main pathway of exposure to the toxic air pollutants that can pose health risks. Only some respondents identified other exposure routes such as ‘ingesting’ or ‘touching’ contaminated soil and/or dust leads to exposure (Table 7). The results reveal significant difference in these answers between respondents in the three age categories.

Table 7. Knowledge about risk of air pollution; age

Question	18–35		36–45		46 and more
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Have you ever felt uncomfortable while outdoors?	63.1%	36.9%	58.9%	41.1%	50.6%	49.4%	.010*
Response category	Never	Always	Never	Always	Never	Always
Have you had difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution?	19%	8.2%	22.9%	6.9%	24.2%	5.5%	.530
To what extent do you think that air pollution is dangerous to your health?	2%	73%	1.7%	70.2%	1.7%	68.8%	.200
Response category	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust
Do you know how people expose to the toxic air pollutants that can pose health risks?	79%	13%	81.6%	9%	82.4%	12%	.020*

* p ≤ 0.05.

Self-prevention and reduction actions and age

When the participants were asked about their self-prevention and mitigation actions (Table 8), around 92–95% of the participants ‘care’ about air quality when they were doing outdoor sports activities. These percentages varied very weakly between the three age classes. Roughly 62% of respondents in age between 18 and 35 expressed their ‘willingness to accept’ reducing the duration/amount of driving vehicles imposed by the concerned authorities. This percentage varied significantly with 75% of the respondents in the age 36 to 45 and about 76% in the age of 46 and more (Table 8). Over 62% of participants in the age 18 to 35 and around 72% of respondents under the other two age classes perceived that there are actions they can take to protect themselves and reduce their exposure to air pollution. Differences among the age groups in this variable were considerable and significant (Table 8). Most of the participants around 76–83% in the three age classes reported that they did not use public transportation buses to move within Muscat Governorate. The variations between the age categories in this variable were negligible (Table 8). A 65% of people in the age 18 to 35, 68% in the age class 36 to 45, and 70% of the respondents in age 46 and more considered reducing air pollution by properly maintaining the car. Only few participants (9–14%) chose to use public transportation, while the rest of the respondents chose other behavioral changes. The differences among respondents in the three age groups in this variable were very significant (Table 8). Around 40–45% of participants suggested establishing controls for the use of private vehicles as a direct environmental measure to reduce air pollution. Whereas 32–39% of respondents suggested spraying water to remove dust from the streets. Difference between participants regarding this variable was statistically insignificant (Table 8). Over 95% of respondents in the age categories (18–35) and (36–45) in addition to 93% in the age of 46 and above reported that private car was their major transportation mode for their daily life. The difference among participants in this response was statistically significant (Table 8).

Table 8. Self-prevention and reduction actions; age

Question	18–35		36–45		46 and more
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Do you care about air quality when doing outdoor sports activities?	92.1%	7.9%	94.8%	5.2%	94.5%	5.5%	.240
If you are requested to reduce the duration/amount of driving your vehicle by the concerned authorities, would you accept that?	68.2%	31.8%	75.0%	25%	76.4%	23.6%	.038*
Do you think there are actions you can take to protect yourself and reduce your exposure to air pollution?	62.5%	37.5%	71.8%	28.1%	72.2%	27.8%	.025*
Have you tried using public transportation buses (like Muwasalat) to move within Muscat Governorate instead of your own car?	16.6%	83.4%	19.8%	80.2%	23.6%	76.4%	.236
Response category	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation
Have you ever considered reducing air pollution through any of the following individual behavioral changes?	65%	10.4%	68%	9.3%	70%	14%	.000*
Response category	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets
If the area you live in, requires direct environmental measures, which of the following can you suggest?	40%	32.6%	43%	39%	44.7%	38%	.098
Response category	Bus	Private car	Bus	Private car	Bus	Private car
What is your major transportation mode for your daily life?	1.7%	95.8%	2.5%	95.5%	0.8%	93.2%	0.02*

* p ≤ 0.05.

Knowledge about air pollution and educational level

Table 9 presents the respondent’s perception about air pollution by educational level. Most respondents, over 96% were well aware of what air pollution is. Nearly 94–96% of the participants in the different educational levels were interested in the issue of air quality. Overall, the participants in the general diploma level significantly pay attention to air quality information more than other three levels. Around 50–64% of respondents in all education levels, ‘care somewhat’ about air quality information. About 70% of people in lower educational level, 75% of diploma holders, 78% of bachelor holders, and 80% of participants holding postgraduate level, ‘always’ pay attention to the quality of the air when they go outdoors. Significant variation among the different educational levels in this variable was obtained (Table 9).

Table 9. Knowledge about air pollution; educational level

Question	General Diploma or lower		Diploma		Bachelor		Postgraduate
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Are you aware the meaning of air pollution?	96.6%	3.4%	97.5%	2.5%	98.2%	1.8%	98.6%	1.4%	.459
Are you interested in the issue of air quality in the area in which you live in the Governorate of Muscat?	93.7%	6.3%	95.5%	4.5%	95.1%	4.9%	96.4%	3.6%	.627
Are you bothered by air pollution from vehicles or any other sources?	97.6%	2.4%	96.0%	4%	96.7%	3.3%	91.9%	8.1%	.013*
Response category	I care a lot	I care somewhat	I care a lot	I care somewhat	I care a lot	I care somewhat	I care a lot	I care somewhat
In general, how would you rate yourself paying attention to air quality information?	50%	50%	38.8%	61.2%	35.7%	64.2%	43.4%	56.6%	.014*
Response category	Never	Always	Never	Always	Never	Always	Never	Always
When you go out from your house or place of work, do you pay attention to the quality of the air you are breathing?	0.5%	70.4%	2%	75%	1%	77.9%	0.9%	80%	.022*

* p ≤ 0.05.

Knowledge about risk of air pollution and educational level

Table 10 demonstrates the respondent’s perceptions about the risk of air pollution according to the educational levels. Around 57–61% of participants in the different educational levels felt uncomfortable while outdoors. About 13% of the respondents in the diploma level ‘always’ had difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution compared to 5–6% in the other three levels. Most of the respondents in the four levels of education had ‘sometimes’ shortness of breath due to air pollution. Significant variation among the educational levels in this variable was recorded (Table 10). A 56% of people in general diploma level, 69% of them in diploma level and 75% of the bachelor and postgraduate holders, perceived that the air pollution is always dangerous to their health. Differences between educational levels in this response were statistically significant (Table 10). Approximately 71% of participants in the first educational level, 82% of diploma holders, 86% of bachelor holders, and around 82% in the postgraduate level reported that ‘breathing contaminated air’ is the main pathway of exposure to the toxic air pollutants. Only few respondents indicated other exposure ways such as ‘ingesting’ or ‘touching’ contaminated soil and/or dust leads to exposure (Table 10). A very strong and significant difference between the educational levels in this variable was obtained.

Table 10. Knowledge about risk of air pollution; educational level

Question	General Diploma or lower		Diploma		Bachelor		Postgraduate
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Have you ever felt uncomfortable while outdoors?	58.3%	41.7%	61.2%	38.8%	56.9%	43.1%	59.3%	40.7%	.772
Response category	Never	Always	Never	Always	Never	Always	Never	Always
Have you had difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution?	23.8%	4.9%	19.5%	12.5%	22.3%	6%	21.5%	6%	.017*
To what extent do you think that air pollution is dangerous to your health?	1%	56%	3%	69%	1.8%	75%	1.4%	75%	.000*
Response category	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust	Breathing contaminated air	Ingesting contaminated soil, dust
Do you know how people expose to the toxic air pollutants that can pose health risks?	71%	20%	81.7%	14%	85.6%	11%	82.2%	13.7%	.000*

* p ≤ 0.05.

Self-prevention and mitigation actions and educational level

Table 11 shows the self-prevention and mitigation actions regarding different educational levels. Around 93–96% of the respondents in various educational grade, ‘care’ about air quality when they are doing outdoor sports activities. Nearly 68 and 69% of the respondents in the level of general diploma and diploma, 73 and 81% of bachelor and postgraduate holders, respectively, expressed their ‘willingness to accept’ in reducing the duration/amount of driving vehicles when imposed by the concerned authorities. Differences among educational levels in this variable were considerable and significant (Table 11). Most of respondents (68–71%) in the different educational levels perceived that there are actions they can take to protect themselves and reduce their exposure to air pollution. Around 78–82% of the participants in the different levels of education reported that they did not use public transportation to move within Muscat Governorate. Only about 19–22% of the participants have used public transportation buses. Around 56% of participants in the general diploma level, about 69% in the diploma stage, 72% of bachelor holders and 70% of the respondents in postgraduate level, considered reducing air pollution by maintaining their car properly. Differences between the four levels of education in this variable were very significant (Table 11). Only a 37% of participants in the first education level, around 44% in the diploma level, 45% of bachelor holders, and about 44% of postgraduate holders suggested establishing controls for the use of private vehicles as a direct environmental measure to reduce air pollution. While around 30–41% of respondents suggested spraying water to remove dust from the streets. Difference among respondents regarding this variable was statistically significant (Table 11). Approximately 93% and 96% of the respondents in the level of general diploma and diploma, 98% and 91% of bachelor and postgraduate holders, respectively, reported that private car was their major transportation mode for their daily life. Difference between participants in this response was statistically significant (Table 11).

Table 11. Self-prevention and reduction actions; educational level

Question	General Diploma or lower		Diploma		Bachelor		Postgraduate
Response category	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Yes	No	Sig. Level
Do you care about air quality when doing outdoor sports activities?	96.1%	3.9%	93.0%	7%	93.3%	6.7%	93.7%	6.3%	.510
If you are requested to reduce the duration/amount of driving your vehicle by the concerned authorities, would you accept that?	68.4%	31.6%	68.7%	31.3%	73.4%	26.6%	80.5%	19.5%	.015*
Do you think there are actions you can take to protect yourself and reduce your exposure to air pollution?	69.9%	30.1%	70.6%	29.4%	67.5%	32.5%	68.8%	31.2%	.813
Have you tried using public transportation buses (like Muwasalat) to move within Muscat Governorate instead of your own car?	21.8%	78.2%	20.9%	79.1%	18.5%	81.5%	18.6%	81.4%	.347
Response category	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation	Maintain your car properly	Use public transportation
Have you ever considered reducing air pollution through any of the following individual behavioral changes?	56%	15%	68.9%	9.7%	72%	9.2%	70%	10.2%	.000*
Response category	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets	Establish controls for the use of private vehicles	Spray water to remove dust from the streets
If the area you live in, requires direct environmental measures, which of the following can you suggest?	37%	29.6%	43.8%	40.4%	44.5%	41%	43.5%	32.5%	.004*
Response category	Bus	Private car	Bus	Private car	Bus	Private car	Bus	Private car
What is your major transportation mode for your daily life?	2.4%	93.2%	3%	95.5%	1.1%	97.8%	1.8%	91%	.000*

* p ≤ 0.05.

Discussion

The participants in the study were mainly composed of 66% males and 34% females and comprised of mainly young people (78% under 46 years). The percentage of males and females working in the public sector in Muscat was 64% and 36%, respectively (NCSI 2020). These results may obviously indicate that the number of males working in the public sector in Muscat is almost twice that of the number of females. Another finding was that most respondents have university education level (78%) compared fewer participants (22%) with lower level of education. This percentage significantly show most of the workers in the public sector have better education level.

Results from the study show that the sources of access to information about air pollution differ significantly among genders, ages, and educational levels (Table 2). Generally, majority of the participants were using social media as a primary source of access to information regarding air pollution compared to other sources including newspapers, TV and radio. Females, middle age groups, and bachelor’s degree holders usually use social media to access the information about air pollution significantly compared to their counterparts (Table 2). Results showed that gender, age and education level were the key factors affecting the sources of access to information about air pollution. In the study conducted in Wuhan city, China, 57% of the participants were using mobile phone applications to access the air quality information (Liu, Kobernus, and Liu 2017). Social media platforms and smartphone applications which are considered as modern digital technologies might provide accessible data about air quality. These results suggest that social media is the main source for the public to obtain information about air pollution in Muscat. This channel is crucial to disseminate information about air pollution and might play a significant role in informing the public about environmental pollution in real-time. Therefore, social media platforms can be utilized by the authorities to inform public about air quality outdoors particularly in places with more vulnerable people including schools, children play yard, and elderly care centers.

We also found significant difference between males and females on the awareness about the meaning of air pollution. The awareness of females about the meaning of air pollution was higher than that of males. Our results are consistent with the body of literature. Larijani (2010) found that female had significantly higher levels of environmental awareness as compared to their male counterparts. Nearly 94–97% of the participants were interested in the issue of air quality in Muscat. These percentages did not differ significantly among genders, ages, and educational levels. This result indicates that majority of the participants were interested in the issue of air quality due to their relatively higher public awareness. Another finding was that most respondents over 94% were concerned by air pollution from vehicles or any other sources. In general, respondents with general diploma, diploma and bachelor levels reported significantly higher levels of annoyance due to air pollution than postgraduate qualified participants. Whether this variation across educational levels is due to differences in the level of awareness or sense of vulnerability is difficult to determine. Results show that male respondents significantly pay attention to air quality information than females. Male’s higher exposure to the outdoor environment than females might have led to higher perception on the level of interest about air quality information. This is consistent with the previous research where Chen et al. (2017) found that males are more affected by both simultaneous and cumulative air pollution exposure and more vulnerable to air pollution than females. Additionally, the participants in the age group of 46 and above were significantly paying attention to air quality information than other two age groups. A previous study indicated that the older respondents pay more attention to health and safety associated with air pollution than the young (Fischer et al. 1991). Moreover, we found that most participants reported that they care ‘somewhat’ about air quality information. Another relevant finding of the study is that most respondents (over 70%) always pay attention to the quality of the air when they go outdoors. While the participants in the general diploma level significantly pay low attention to the air quality when they go outdoors as compared to their counterparts. This observation is consistent with an earlier report illustrating that the awareness of air quality of citizens is associated to their education level (Egondi et al. 2013). The level of interest regarding outdoor air quality might be affected by the amount of air pollution knowledge. Previous study indicated that participants with lower education level have less knowledge of air pollution and its health effects compared to those with higher level of education (Liu, Kobernus, and Liu 2017).

Our results showed that female participants reported they felt uncomfortable while outdoors significantly higher than their male counterparts. Previous studies have reported that females are more susceptible than males to the effects of air pollution (Clougherty 2010; Oliveira et al. 2011). Males have more relative fat mass, which gives them higher distribution volume for chemical particles in the environment. While female’s bodies absorb pollutants more quickly than males, causing higher toxicity. Kan et al. (2008) estimated that the effect of PM10 and O₃ among females was almost double than males. Likewise, the impact of SO₂ and NO₂ on total mortality in females was higher than in males. Females were more vulnerable than males upon air pollution exposure and that may be attributed to different physiological structures, social behaviors, and individual features (Zhang et al. 2017). Zhong et al. (2018) reported that the effects of air pollution were faster in females compared to males and the magnitude of the estimates was higher for females for PM10 and SO₂. We also found that younger participants felt uncomfortable while outdoors significantly more than older one. This is might due the level of activities that young participants do in the outdoor environment which lead them with more vulnerable perception to the air pollution. Skov et al. (1991) found that avoidance of outdoor activity was associated with personal experiences of symptoms ascribed to the air pollution, employment status, and gender. Elder participants likely to be avoiding the outdoors activities when the air is not good to minimize their exposure. With respect to individual’s perception regarding the risk of air pollution, we also found that only very few participants reported had ‘always’ difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution. The differences between the variables were very weak, except for the education level. The average concentration of particulate air pollution (PM10) and (PM2.5) in Muscat did not exceed WHO standard which may be considered better as compared to polluted cities (Al-Shidi, Sulaiman, and Alrubkhi 2020c). This might explain the results of the most participants indicating that only sometimes have difficulty or shortness of breath due to air pollution in Muscat. Further, most respondents recognized that the air pollution is ‘always’ dangerous to their health. The results indicated that participants in the higher education level (bachelor and postgraduate) were having significantly higher perception that the air pollution is always dangerous to their health more than their counterparts in the lower levels. This was consistent with study conducted by Liu, Kobernus, and Liu (2017), that participants with higher education level have elevated perception of air pollution and its health effects compared to those with lower level of education. Our data also show that most of the participants have indicated that breathing contaminated air is the main pathway of exposure to the toxic air pollutants. This result was consistent with the previous studies conducted elsewhere (Liu, Kobernus, and Liu 2017).

Another finding is that over 90% of participants care about air quality when they are doing outdoor sports activities. The differences among the three demographical variables were very weak. Most of the participants in the study conducted in Wuhan, Madrid, and Barcelona cities, were avoiding exercise outdoors due to air pollution (Liu, Kobernus, and Liu 2017; Oltra and Sala 2018). The results also show that female respondents significantly were willing to accept reducing the duration/amount of driving vehicles more than males. Further, the older participants (above 35) tend to accept reducing the duration of driving vehicles significantly more than younger participants. Additionally, participants with higher level of education (postgraduate) indicated significant level of willingness to accept reducing the duration of driving vehicles as compared to participants with lower education levels. Our results showed that gender, age and education level were the main factors affecting the levels of willingness to accept reducing the duration of driving vehicles. Liu, Kobernus, and Liu (2017) found females and participants with master’s degree are more willing to change their behavior to reduce their private car driving if the government required it. Results from the survey also show the majority of participants perceived that there are actions they can take to protect themselves and reduce their exposure to air pollution. The results indicated that gender and age were the significant factors affecting the levels of perception about the actions for protecting and reducing the exposure to air pollution. Our finding is consistent with previous studies (Lan et al. 2016; Liu, Kobernus, and Liu 2017). The data present that most of the participants in Muscat, reported they did not use public transportation buses (Muwasalat) to move within Muscat Governorate. A significantly higher number of participants male have used public transportation buses compared female respondents. This result is somehow inconsistent with the previous studies around the world since more females take public transport than males. This disparity between respondent’s males and females may be attributed to several factors, including the general lifestyle of females in Muscat. Most of the females basically use their private car to move within the city. Participants in Muscat demonstrated a notable willingness to change their behavior. In our study, most participants indicated that they would modify their behavior via reducing air pollution by proper maintenance of their cars. In addition, interestingly the majority suggested establishing controls for the use of private vehicles as a direct environmental measure to reduce air pollution. These results are generally consistent with recent findings from other report (Guo et al. 2016). Finally, the study shows that over 90% of the participants reported that private car was their major transportation mode for their daily life. This is consistent with the previous study conducted in the country. For example, Ambusaidi et al. (2014) found in a country where new, large and expensive private vehicles are common, public pay less attention to use different types of transports with addition to a few respondents who believed that using public transport was socially embarrassing. Consequently, we need more effective mechanisms and policies reducing the use of private vehicles and encourage the use of public transport to reduce traffic emissions.

Conclusion

The current study investigated the variations in the sources of access to information about air pollution, knowledge and risk perception of air pollution and self-prevention and mitigation actions among genders, ages, and educational levels. As a result of the survey, many people in the public sector in Muscat were using social media as a primary source of access to information. Additionally, the majority were aware of the meaning of air pollution and therefore interested in the issue of air quality in Muscat. Thus, males and older participants have significantly higher level of interest about air quality information as compared to their counterparts. The majority always pay attention to the quality of the air when they go outdoors. The current study indicated that females are more susceptible than males to the effects of air pollution as they felt uncomfortable while outdoors significantly more than males. A majority of people recognized that the air pollution is always dangerous to their health, while participants with higher education level have a higher risk perception of air pollution. Results also demonstrate most of the participants indicated that breathing contaminated air is the most important pathway of exposure to the toxic air pollutants. The data reveal that most of the participants in Muscat reported they did not use public transportation buses (Muwasalat) to move within Muscat Governorate. Participants in Muscat exhibited a significant willingness to change their behavior to reduce air pollution including maintain their car properly and suggested establishing controls for the use of private vehicles. However, over 90% of the participants reported that private car was their major transportation mode for their daily life. Environmental education is a fundamental part of official education through its national curriculum framework. Consequently, incorporating environmental concepts and developing new strategies regarding air pollution into the existing curriculum are of important implications to enhance school student’s awareness about environmental issues (Ambusaidi et al. 2012). Meanwhile, a comprehensive study needs to be conducted in the country to assess public perception of air pollution in different cities. While focusing group discussion could be implemented as a part of the study to highlight the concerned perspective regarding air quality in the indoor and outdoor environment. Furthermore, the active participation from the public provide a significant baseline information to the government for the improvement of regulations and policies for effective control of air pollution. Subsequently, effective mechanisms and policies are required to change this attitude to increase the use of public transportation. A comprehensive framework should be legislated by the government mitigating traffic emissions and other sources of air pollution in the cities. Investment in scientific research to introduce alternative and cleaner fuels with focusing on renewable energy instead of the crude oil. Improve existing public transport systems with encouraging to use instead of the private cars.

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to the Humanities Research Center in Sultan Qaboos university for the support of this research. Staff from the Planning & Statistics Department are thanked for their support.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Hilal K. Al-Shidi

Hilal Al Shidi is a Ph.D. graduate from Sultan Qaboos University, College of Science, Department of Biology, Oman. Currently he is working in the Ministry of Education/Oman as a biology teacher in high school. He worked at Sultan Qaboos University as teaching assistant in college of science, (2015 - 2017). He worked as research assistant in college of agriculture, (24/3/2016- 23/3/2017). He published a number of papers in high index journals,and he participated in different local and international conferences.

Abdullah Khamis Ambusaidi

Abdullah Ambusaidi is a professor of Science Education. He received his Ph.D. from Centre of Science Education at Glasgow University/UK. Currently he is the undersecretary for Education at the Ministry of Education/Oman. He worked before at Sultan Qaboos University and held several positions including Director of the Center for Humanities Research and Dean of Postgraduate Studies. He has supervised more than 80 master's and doctorate degrees in science education and he as external and internal examiner for more than 50 master's and doctoral dissertations. He has more than 140 published and accepted research papers in well-known international journals. He is a consultant for many educational projects in Oman, including TAMAM Project (school-based development) and Green Schools Initiative. He is also a leading researcher of various educational projects, such as school garden project, ecotourism project, health education project and the Omani Heritage Project in the school curricula.

Hameed Sulaiman

Hameed Sulaiman is an Associate professor of Environmental science at Sultan Qaboos University (SQU). Before joining SQU, has worked in Africa for more than six years. He has more than 15 years of experience in environmental teaching, research and outreach activities. He is a hybrid generalist by formal training having a Ph.D. in Environmental Science with specialized interests in pollution and waste management, Environmental Impact Assessment, and Education for Sustainable Development.