One Nation Under a Groove: A People's History of the Drum

Abstract

Drummers of African descent have long considered African drumming as a means of healing and empowerment for both themselves and their communities. The African drummers who have met for over 30 years to play at Washington, DC's Malcolm X Park still play the African drum for their people, despite attempts to have them removed from the park, to obscure the history of their tradition, and to disregard the underlying significance of the African drum for African people.

Keywords:

• African drum
• Black power
• commercialization
• gentrification
• healing
• Malcolm X Park
• spirit

Notes

1. “Black” is used hereafter to refer to individuals who identify themselves as being of appreciably African ancestry.

2. http://www.dcist.com/archives/2005/01/09/previously_on_dcist.php. (Accessed on September 18, 2005). DCist.com, “Comments” posted by “Carolyn,” a white long-time resident of Columbia Heights on January 11, 2005.

3. Lillian Friedberg. “Drumming for Dollars: the Bottom Line Between Appreciation and Appropriation.” The Chicago Djembe Project. Date. April 18, 2005. Available at http://www.chidjembe.com/drumdollars.html. Friedberg defines a “drum circle” as “a circle of novice Drummers led by one moderately proficient ringmaster” which “cannot affect any sort of healing.”

4. Michael Winkelman. “Complementary Therapy for Addiction: ‘Drumming Out Drugs.’” American Journal of Public Health 93.4 (2003): 647–651, which espoused playing African drums in “drum circles as a way to combat addictive tendencies.”

5. Michael Willrich. “The Autobiography of Malcolm X Park.” Washington City Paper, November 24, 1989.

6. “D.C. Residents Dig in to Reclaim their Park,” Washington Post, October 21, 1991.

7. Washington Parks. “Meridian Hill/Malcolm X Park History.” Washington Parks & People: 2004, available at http://www.washingtonparks.net/meridianhillhistory.html (accessed September 17, 2005).

8. Ibid.

9. Donald Ritchie. Doing Oral History, 2nd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2003), 36.

10. Manning Marable. Living Black History (New York: Basic Civitas Books, 2006). (forthcoming).

11. Sule Greg Wilson, preface to The Drummer's Path (Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1992).

12. The Drummer's Path, 21–22.

13. Sterling Stuckey. Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundations of Black America (New York: Oxford Univ., 1987), 67–73.

14. Peter Wood. Black Majority (New York, W.W. Norton & Company, 1974), 315.

15. Christopher Johnson, preface to “A Social History of the Drum.” Diss. (New York University, 1999. DAI 60 [1999]: 1633).

16. “The Autobiography of Malcolm X Park.” Washington City Paper, November 24, 1989. Golden was quoted by City Paper writer Michael Willrich.

17. Cultural Tourism DC, “Drum and Spear Bookstore Site.” African American Heritage Trail Database: 1999–2005, available at http://www.culturaltourismdc.org/info-url3948/info-url_show.htm?doc_id=209083(accessed November 11, 2005).

18. Baile McKnight, drum craftsman/educator/folklorist. Interview by author, Washington. Minidisc recording. Baile's African Drum Works, Forrestville, MD.

19. Barnett Williams, drummer at Malcolm X Park. Interview by author, August 18, 2005, Washington Minidisc recording, Howard University, Washington.

20. Kwame Ture and Charles V. Hamilton. Black Power (New York: Vintage Books, 1967), 45.

21. “Black Dance in Washington,” Washington Times, February 10, 1984, 4D.

22. “African Liberation Benefit Concert,” flyer, 1972, African Liberation Day vertical file, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard University, Washington, D.C.

23. “2d African Liberation Day, Demonstrations Set May 26,” Washington Post, March 6, 1973.

24. Patricia S. Tulloch. “African Liberation Theme Draws Mixed Reaction.” Washington Afro-American, June 2, 1984.

25. “3,000 Marchers Celebrate African Liberation Day,” WP, May 24, 1981.

26. “2d African Liberation Day, Demonstrations Set May 26,” Washington Post, March 6, 1973.

27. Baile McKnight.

28. “Hot Summer Fun,” Washington Afro-American, June 23, 1988.

29. “Meridian Hill Park Wrestled Away from D.C. Drug Dealers,” Washington Post, March 15, 1993.

30. “A Walk in the Park with a Past,” WP, June 30, 2002.

31. Sylvia Moreno. “The View on a Cliff in the City,” July 1. 1999, available at http://washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/Wplate/1999-07/01/019I-070199-idx.html (accessed October 25, 2005).

32. Quito Swan, drummer at Malcolm X Park, historian. Interview by author, October 24, 2005, Washington Minidisc recording, 7th Street and Florida Avenue, Washington.

33. Baile McKnight.

34. In his book, Black Heretics, Black Prophets (London and New York: Routledge, 2003), chapter 6, Bogues borrows this term from Joy James, which she defines in her book, Representations Of Black Feminist Politics (New York: Palgrave, 2002).

35. Bret Eynon. “Cast upon the Shore: Oral History and New Scholarship on the Movements of the 1960s.” The Journal of American History 83.2 (1996): 560–570.

36. Rhett S. Jones. “Politics and the Afro American Performing Arts in Environmental Perspective.” Callaloo 14/15 (Feb. 1982): 181–182.

37. Kane, David, drummer at Malcolm X Park. Interview by author, July 22, 2005, Washington. Minidisc recording. Kane's home, Washington.

38. National Park Service, “Rock Creek Park: Meridian Hill.” National Park Service:8/12/01, available at http://www.nps.gov/rocr/cultural/merid.htm (accessed on September 17, 2005).

39. Chernoff, John. African Rhythms and African Sensibility. Chicago: University of Chicago, 1979.

40. Diallo, Yaya, & Hall, Mitchell. The Healing Drum: African Wisdom Teachings. Rochester, VT: Destiny Books, 1989.

41. Hartigan, Royal. “Blood, Drum, Spirit: Drum Languages of West Africa, African America, Native America, Central Java, and South India.” Diss. Wesleyan U, 1986. DAI 47 (1986): 1642.

42. Hartigan, Royal. “The Heritage of the Drumset.” African American Review 29.2 (1995): 234–236.

43. Mbiti, John. African Religions and Philosophy. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1970.

44. Sunkett, Mark. Mandiani Drum and Dance. Tempe: White Cliffs, 1995.

45. Wheeler, Linda. “Dark Side of a Park.” Washington Post, August 30, 1981, available at http://www.washingtonparks.net/darkpark.html (accessed September 17, 2005).

46. “Malcolm X Park: People's Playground,” Washington Post, May 26, 1982.

47. “Washington's Jewel of a Park Losing its Luster to Vandalism,” Washington Post, February 24, 1990.

48. “Wrested from the Jaws of Crime,” Washington Post, August 5, 1993.

49. “Group Vows to Reclaim NW Park,” Washington Post, October 12, 1993.

50. “Dick Gregory Is Arrested at NW Park,” Washington Post, October 13, 1993.

51. “A People's Park to Appreciate,” Washington Post, October 18, 2001.

52. Hartigan, Erin & Peck, Julia. “Meridian Hill Park.” Washingtonpost.com [EditorialReview]: 1996–2005, available at http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn?node=entertainment/profile&id=799601 (accessed September 17, 2005).

53. Harewood, Gerry. “Lumumba's Daughter Calls for African Unity.” Washington Afro-American, May 26, 1979.

54. Powell, Anthony. “Thousands Attend March, Rally to Renew ‘Freedom’ Commitment.” Washington Afro-American, May 30, 1981.

55. Schowers, Mario A. “African Liberation Day—No Picnic.” Washington Afro-American, May 31, 1986.