Who Will Care for Grandma? Older Women, Parent Visas, and Australia’s Migration Program

Abstract

Despite its substantial size and significance, the operation of Australia’s regular migration program has attracted relatively little feminist legal interest. In the last 30 years the migration program has shifted towards prioritising working-age migrants with a high level of skills (deemed to be) in demand in Australia, but this emphasis on the immediate needs of the labour market has not been investigated in terms of its implications for diverse groups of women. The decline and (near-)abolition of so-called non-contributory parent visas in 2014 is a recent example that particularly affects older women wishing to migrate to join their children. The migration of parents, whether it is motivated by the provision of care for grandchildren or their own future care needs, raises questions about care, a key feminist issue. As the main burden of care has traditionally been placed on women, parent visas offer an important starting point for assessing the gender dimensions of the migration program. With the help of critical feminist perspectives on migration, ageing, as well as transnational families and care, this article starts to critique some of the gender inequalities embedded in Australia’s migrant selection process and its calculations which serve to exclude, among others, older women. After interrogating the problematic assumptions about and treatment of parent migration, the article suggests that the migration program raises difficult feminist questions about solidarity, transnational family life, and the maintenance of caregiving links across borders.

Notes

1 Eleonore Kofman, Annie Phizacklea, Parvati Raghuram and Rosemary Sales, Gender and International Migration in Europe: Employment, Welfare and Politics (Routledge 2000); Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, Servants of Globalization: Women, Migration and Domestic Work (Stanford University Press 2001); Helma Lutz, ‘At Your Service Madam! The Globalization of Domestic Service’ (2002) 70 Feminist Review 89.

2 For an overview see Teppo Kröger and Minna Zechner, ‘Migration and Care: Giving and Needing Care across National Borders’ (2009) 4 Finnish Journal of Ethnicity and Migration 17.

3 About the role of law in gendered migration processes see Kitty Calavita, ‘Gender, Migration, and Law: Crossing Borders and Bridging Disciplines’ (2006) 40 International Migration Review 104.

4 Peter Mares, ‘Fear and Instrumentalism: Australian Policy Responses to Migration from the Global South’ (2011) 100 The Round Table: The Commonwealth Journal of International Affairs 407 at 415.

5 Catherine Dauvergne, ‘Sovereignty, Migration and the Rule of Law in Global Times’ (2004) 67 The Modern Law Review 588 at 588. See also Catherine Dauvergne, Making People Illegal (Cambridge University Press 2008) 2.

6 Catherine Dauvergne, ‘Citizenship, Migration Laws and Women: Gendering Permanent Residency Statistics’ (2000) 24 Melbourne University Law Review 280 at 292.

7 Stephen Castles, Ellie Vasta and Derya Ozkul, ‘Australia: A Classical Immigration Country in Transition’ in James F Hollifield, Philip L Martin and Pia M Orrenius (eds) Controlling Immigration: A Global Perspective (Stanford University Press 2014, 3rd edn) 128 at 144.

8 Andrew Markus, James Jupp and Peter McDonald, Australia’s Immigration Revolution (Allen & Unwin 2009) 152.

9 Mary Crock, ‘Women and Migration Law’ in Patricia Weiser Easteal (ed) Women and the Law in Australia (LexisNexis Butterworths 2010) 328.

10 Department of Immigration and Border Protection, Fact Sheet – Migration Programme Planning Levels (online) <https://www.border.gov.au/about/corporate/information/fact-sheets/20planning> (last accessed 30 November 2016). See also David Smith, Dan Payne, Mathew Horne and Debbie Claridge, ‘Developments in Australian Migration’ (2016) 43 Canadian Studies in Population 117 at 119.

11 Iris Marion Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference (Princeton University Press 1990) 169.

12 Floya Anthias, ‘Transnational Mobilities, Migration Research and Intersectionality’ (2012) 2 Nordic Journal of Migration Research 102 at 106.

13 The migration program has catered for permanent parental migration on the basis of family unity, provided the parent has the requisite number of children in Australia and meets other criteria. For further details see text accompanying note 80.

14 Non-contributory parent visas entail a smaller application charge but take many years to process because of very small yearly quotas, while ‘contributory’ applicants are given a higher processing priority and a larger quota.

15 Khanh Hoang, ‘Senate Set to Decide if Family Visas Will Go Only to the Rich’ The Conversation 24 September 2014 (online) <http://theconversation.com/senate-set-to-decide-if-family-visas-will-go-only-to-the-rich-32044> (last accessed 30 November 2016).

16 Mary Crock and Kate Bones, ‘Coalition’s New Visa Laws Make Family Reunion a Preserve of the Rich’ The Sydney Morning Herald 12 June 2014 p 16.

17 Productivity Commission, Migrant Intake into Australia Productivity Commission Inquiry Report No 77, 13 April 2016.

18 Stephen Castles and Mark J Miller, The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World (Palgrave Macmillan 2009, 4th edn).

19 Dauvergne above note 6 at 285.

20 Ruth Fincher, Lois Foster and Rosemary Wilmot, Gender Equity and Australian Immigration Policy (Australian Government Publishing Service 1994); Ruth Fincher, ‘Gender, Age, and Ethnicity in Immigration for an Australian Nation’ (1997) 29 Environment and Planning A 217 at 223. See also Marie de Lepervanche, ‘Breeders for Australia: A National Identity for Women’ (1989) 24 Australian Journal of Social Issues 163.

21 James P Walsh, ‘Quantifying Citizens: Neoliberal Restructuring and Immigrant Selection in Canada and Australia’ (2011) 15 Citizenship Studies 861.

22 Dauvergne above note 6 at 298.

23 As above at 301.

24 Fincher and others above note 20; Dauvergne above note 6.

25 Fincher and others above note 20 chapter 2.

26 Anna Boucher, ‘Skill, Migration and Gender in Australia and Canada: The Case of Gender-Based Analysis’ (2007) 42 Australian Journal of Political Science 383; Anna Boucher, Gender, Migration and the Global Race for Talent (Manchester University Press 2016).

27 Jennifer Elrick and Naomi Lightman, ‘Sorting or Shaping? The Gendered Economic Outcomes of Immigration Policy in Canada’ (2016) 50 International Migration Review 352 show that the disadvantage persists even when individual human capital and personal characteristics, household context, and pre-existing differences in employability are taken into account. See also Robyn Iredale, ‘Gender, Immigration Policies and Accreditation: Valuing the Skills of Professional Women Migrants’ (2005) 36 Geoforum 155.

28 Sue Webb, ‘The Feminisation of Migration and the Migrants VET Policy Neglects: The Case of Skilled Women Secondary Migrants in Australia’ (2015) 67 Journal of Vocational Education & Training 26 at 27. See also Christina Ho, ‘Migration as Feminisation? Chinese Women's Experiences of Work and Family in Australia’ (2006) 32 Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 497.

29 Iredale above note 27 at 161; Webb above note 28; Hye-Kyung Lee and Chulhyo Kim, The Dynamics of Migration Processes: The Gender Dimension in Asian-Australian Migration Working paper for the Department of Immigration and Citizenship (2011).

30 See Michael Fine and Annette Mitchell, ‘Immigration and the Aged Care Workforce in Australia: Meeting the Deficit’ (2007) 26 Australasian Journal on Ageing 157; Anna Howe, ‘Migrant Care Workers or Migrants Working in Long-Term Care? A Review of Australian Experience’ (2009) 21 Journal of Aging & Social Policy 374.

31 Arlie Russell Hochschild, ‘Global Care Chains and Emotional Surplus Value’ in William Hutton and Anthony Giddens (eds) On the Edge: Living with Global Capitalism (Jonathan Cape 2000) 130. See also Nicola Yeates, ‘Global Care Chains’ (2004) 6 International Feminist Journal of Politics 369.

32 Parreñas above note 1; Francesca Bettio, Annamaria Simonazzi and Paola Villa, ‘Change in Care Regimes and Female Migration: The “Care Drain” in the Mediterranean’ (2006) 16 Journal of European Social Policy 271; Fiona Williams, ‘Migration and Care: Themes, Concepts and Challenges’ (2010) 9 Social Policy & Society 385; Bridget Anderson and Isabel Shutes (eds) Migration and Care Labour: Theory, Policy and Politics (Palgrave Macmillan 2014).

33 Graham Hugo, ‘Contextualising the “Crisis in Aged Care” in Australia: A Demographic Perspective’ (2007) 42 Australian Journal of Social Issues 162; Graham Hugo, ‘Care Worker Migration, Australia and Development’ (2009) 15 Population, Space and Place 189.

34 Fincher above note 20 at 225.

35 Rhacel Salazar Parreñas, Children of Global Migration: Transnational Families and Gendered Woes (Stanford University Press 2005).

36 Franca van Hooren, ‘When Families Need Immigrants: The Exceptional Position of Migrant Domestic Workers and Care Assistants in Italian Immigration Policy’ (2010) 2 Bulletin of Italian Politics 21.

37 Toni Calasanti, ‘Is Feminist Gerontology Marginal?’ (2005) 11 Contemporary Gerontology 107.

38 Cherry Russell, ‘Ageing as a Feminist Issue’ (1987) 10 Women's Studies International Forum 125 at 126.

39 Neal King, ‘The Lengthening List of Oppressions: Age Relations and the Feminist Study of Inequality’ in Toni Calasanti Toni and Kathleen F Slevin (eds) Age Matters (Routledge 2006) 47 at 50-52.

40 Susan Moller Okin, Justice, Gender, and the Family (Basic Books 1989); Arlie Russell Hochschild with Anne Machung, The Second Shift (Viking 1989); Joan C Tronto, Moral Boundaries: A Political Argument for an Ethic of Care (Routledge 1993); Selma Sevenhuijsen, Citizenship and the Ethics of Care: Feminist Considerations on Justice, Morality and Politics (Routledge 1998); Eva Feder Kittay, Love's Labor: Essays on Women, Equality and Dependency (Routledge 1999); Martha Albertson Fineman, The Autonomy Myth (The New Press 2004).

41 Bettina Cass, ‘Citizenship, Work, and Welfare: The Dilemma for Australian Women’ (1994) 1 Social Politics 106; Barbara Pocock, ‘Work/Care Regimes: Institutions, Culture and Behaviour and the Australian Case’ (2005) 12 Gender, Work and Organization 32; Deborah Brennan, ‘Babies, Budgets, and Birthrates: Work/Family Policy in Australia 1996-2006’ (2007) 14 Social Politics 31.

42 Toni Calasanti, Kathleen F Slevin and Neal King, ‘Ageism and Feminism: From “Et Cetera” to Center’ (2006) 18 NWSA Journal 13.

43 Sara Arber and Jay Ginn, Connecting Gender and Ageing (Open University Press 1995); Carroll L Estes, Simon Biggs and Chris Phillipson, Social Theory, Social Policy and Ageing (Open University Press 2003) chapter 4; Carroll L Estes, ‘Women, Ageing and Inequality: A Feminist Perspective’ in Malcolm L Johnson (ed) The Cambridge Handbook of Age and Ageing (Cambridge University Press 2005) 552; Barbara Cruikshank, Learning to Be Old (Rowman & Littlefield 2013).

44 Cruikshank as above at 125.

45 Anna Freixas, Bárbara Luque and Amalia Reina, ‘Critical Feminist Gerontology: In the Back Room of Research’ (2012) 24 Journal of Women & Aging 44 at 48-49.

46 Russell above note 38 at 130.

47 Calasanti above note 42.

48 Julia Twigg, ‘The Body, Gender, and Age: Feminist Insights in Social Gerontology’ (2004) 18 Journal of Aging Studies 59 at 65.

49 Calasanti above note 42 at 22-23. About older people as carers, see Australian Bureau of Statistics, Older Carers. Australian Social Trends (online) December 2012 <http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/Lookup/4102.0Main+Features40Dec+2012>.

50 Cruikshank above note 43 at 125.

51 Lyn Craig and Bridget Jenkins, ‘Grandparental Childcare in Australia: Gender Differences in the Correlates of Providing Regular Grandparental Care While Parents Work’ (2016) 19 Community, Work & Family 281.

52 Briony Horsfall and Deborah Dempsey, ‘Grandparents Doing Gender: Experiences of Grandmothers and Grandfathers Caring for Grandchildren in Australia’ (2015) 54 Journal of Sociology 1070 at 1077.

53 Calasanti above note 42 at 23-24.

54 Nicole Asquith, ‘Positive Ageing, Neoliberalism and Australian Sociology’ (2009) 45 Journal of Sociology 255.

55 Productivity Commission, An Ageing Australia. Preparing for the Future Commission Research Paper Overview (2013).

56 For comparative data on this see OECD, Elderly Population (online) 2016 <https://data.oecd.org/pop/elderly-population.htm> (last accessed 30 November 2016).

57 Hugo (2009) above note 33; Michael Fine, ‘Employment and Informal Care: Sustaining Paid Work and Caregiving in Community and Home-Based Care’ (2012) 37 Ageing International 57.

58 Sandra Torres, ‘Transnationalism and the Study of Aging and Old Age’ in Constantinos Phellas (ed) Aging in European Societies (Springer 2013) 267.

59 Deborah Bryceson and Ulla Vuorela (eds) The Transnational Family: New European Frontiers and Global Networks (Berg 2002).

60 Loretta Baldassar, Majella Kilkey, Laura Merla and Raelene Wilding, ‘Transnational Families’ in Judith Treas, Jacqueline Scott and Martin Richards (eds) The Wiley Blackwell Companion to the Sociology of Families (Wiley Blackwell) 155 at 155.

61 Loretta Baldassar, ‘Transnational Families and Aged Care: The Mobility of Care and the Migrancy of Ageing’ (2007) 33 Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 275; Loretta Baldassar, Cora Baldock and Raelene Wilding Families Caring across Borders: Migration, Ageing and Transnational Caregiving (Palgrave Macmillan 2007).

62 Raelene Wilding and Loretta Baldassar, ‘Transnational Family-Work Balance: Experiences of Australian Migrants Caring for Ageing Parents and Young Children across Distance and Borders’ (2009) 15 Journal of Family Studies 177.

63 Baldassar above note 60 at 159.

64 Hochschild above note 31.

65 Loretta Baldassar and Laura Merla, ‘Conceptualising Care Circulation’ in Loretta Baldassar and Laura Merla (eds) Transnational Families, Migration and the Circulation of Care: Understanding Mobility and Absence in Family Life (Routledge 2014) 3.

66 Wei Wei Da, ‘Transnational Grandparenting: Child Care Arrangements among Migrants from the People's Republic of China to Australia’ (2003) 4 Journal of International Migration and Integration 79.

67 Julie Vullnetari and Russell King, ‘“Does Your Granny Eat Grass?” On Mass Migration, Care Drain and the Fate of Older People in Rural Albania’ (2008) 8 Global Networks 139; Jingzhong Ye, Chunyu Wang, Huifang Huifang Wu, Congzhi He and Juan Liu, ‘Internal Migration and Left-Behind Populations in China’ (2013) 40 The Journal of Peasant Studies 1119; Congzhi He and Jingzhong Ye, ‘Lonely Sunsets: Impacts of Rural-Urban Migration on the Left-Behind Elderly in Rural China’ (2014) 20 Population, Space and Place 352.

68 Majella Kilkey and Laura Merla, ‘Situating Transnational Families’ Care-Giving Arrangements: The Role of Institutional Contexts’ (2014) 14 Global Networks 210.

69 Baldassar above note 60 at 160.

70 On this aspect see Emilia Forssell, ‘Transnational Ageing, Care and the Welfare State’ (2013) 3 Transnational Social Review 83.

71 Baldassar and others above note 61 at 169; Laura Merla, ‘Salvadoran Migrants in Australia: An Analysis of Transnational Families’ Capability to Care across Borders’ (2015) 53 International Migration 153 at 154.

72 But see Baldassar and others above note 61 chapter 7.

73 Neil Lunt, ‘Older People within Transnational Families: The Social Policy Implications’ (2009) 18 International Journal of Social Welfare 243 at 246-248.

74 Yanqiu Rachel Zhou, ‘Transnational Aging: The Impacts of Adult Children's Immigration on their Parents’ Later Lives (2013) 3 Transnational Social Review 49; Rachel Zhou Yanqiu, ‘Toward Transnational Care Interdependence: Rethinking the Relationships between Care, Immigration and Social Policy’ (2013) 13 Global Social Policy 280.

75 Xiaobei Chen and Sherry Xiaohan Thorpe ‘Temporary Families? The Parent and Grandparent Sponsorship Program and the Neoliberal Regime of Immigration Governance in Canada’ (2015) 1 Migration, Mobility, & Displacement 81; Bronwyn Bragg and Lloyd L Wong ‘“Cancelled Dreams”: Family Reunification and Shifting Canadian Immigration Policy’ (2016) 14 Journal of Immigrant & Refugee Studies 46. On how similar challenge are managed by Koreans working temporarily in Singapore, see Jeehun Kim, ‘Remitting “Filial Co-Habitation”: “Actual” and “Virtual” Co-Residence between Korean Professional Migrant Adult Children Couples in Singapore and their Elderly Parents (2012) 32 Ageing and Society 1337.

76 Anthias above note 12 at 106.

77 The difference between Parent (subclass 103) and Aged Parent (subclass 804) visas is that the former is for applicants migrating from overseas whereas the latter is for onshore applicants currently in Australia (and these applicants must be ‘aged’, that is, old enough to be granted the aged pension).

78 This visa (subclasses 114 and 838) is a permanent visa for single aged relatives who are financially dependent on an Australian citizen or permanent resident.

79 This visa (subclasses 115 and 835) is for remaining relatives such as brothers and sisters whose only near relatives are those usually resident in Australia.

80 Migration Amendment (Repeal of Certain Visa Classes) Regulation 2014 (Cth), Select Legislative Instrument No 65 (2014). The following visa classes of the Migration Regulations 1994, Schedule 1 were targeted: Item 1123A Other Family (Migrant) (Class BO); Item 1123B Other Family (Residence) (Class BU); Item 1124 Parent (Migrant) (Class AX); Item 1124A Aged Parent (Residence) (Class BP). The relevant subclasses are: Parent visa (subclass 103); Aged Dependent Relative visa (subclass 114); Remaining Relative visa (subclass 115); Carer visa (subclass 116); Aged Parent visa (subclass 804); Remaining Relative visa (subclass 835); Carer visa (subclass 836); and Aged Dependent Relative visa (subclass 838).

81 Subclasses 116 and 838.

82 Department of Immigration and Border Protection, Australia's Migration Trends 2013-14 at 34. A total of 375 carer visas were granted in the same period.

83 Minister for Immigration and Border Protection, Explanatory Statement, Select Legislative Instrument No 65 (2014), Migration Amendment (Repeal of Certain Visa Classes) Regulation 2014, 2 (emphasis added).

84 Sacha Payne, ‘Low Cost “Parent Visas” Reinstated but 25 Year Wait Times Remain’ SBS News (online) 26 September <http://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/2014/09/26/low-cost-parent-visas-reinstated-25-year-wait-times-remain> (last accessed 30 November 2016).

85 Crock and Bones above note 16.

86 Minister for Immigration and Border Protection above note 83 at 3. The National Disability Insurance Scheme (NDIS) is a social insurance scheme for Australians with disability, introduced by the Labor Government in 2013. It is currently being rolled out in stages and intended to provide full coverage by 2019.

87 Subclass 143 (Parent) for parents outside Australia or subclass 864 (Aged Parent) for onshore applicants.

88 Alternatively, parents can apply for a long stay Visitor visa which allows eligible parents to visit their children in Australia for periods of up to 12 months at a time over an extended validity period.

89 Department of Immigration and Border Protection, 2015–16 Migration Programme Report: Programme Year to 30 June 2016 at 14.

90 This is made up of the two visa application charges, the second one of which is substantially higher (currently $43,600). See Migration Regulations 1994 (Cth) Item 1130 of Schedule 1.

91 The Assurance of Support is a legal commitment by a person (not necessarily the sponsor) to repay to the Australian Government certain welfare payments paid to migrants during a specific residency period. A financial bond must be provided before a visa is granted.

92 Department of Immigration and Border Protection, Parent Visa Queue (online) 2016 <https://www.border.gov.au/Trav/Brin/Fami/Capping-and-queuing/Parent-visa-queue> (last accessed 30 November 2016)

93 As at 30 June 2016, 50,544 applicants remain in the queue. Department of Immigration and Border Protection, above note 89 at 14.

94 Crock and Bones above note 16.

95 Scott Morrison, ‘Address to the Migration Institute of Australia National Conference’, Canberra, 21 October 2013 <http://migrationalliance.com.au/immigration-daily-news/entry/2013-10-dibpscott-morrison-s-speech-at-mia-conference.html> (last accessed 30 November 2016).

96 Hoang above note 15; also Crock and Bones above note 16.

97 This number includes primary and secondary applicants. The statistics were provided on request by the Department of Immigration and Border Protection (on file with author).

98 Eleonore Kofman, ‘Family-Related Migration: A Critical Review of European Studies’ (2004) 30 Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 243.

99 Mares above note 4 at 410.

100 Freda Hawkins, Critical Years in Immigration: Canada and Australia Compared (McGill-Queen's University Press 1989); James Jupp, From White Australia to Woomera (Cambridge University Press 2007, 2nd edn); Markus above note 8.

101 James P Walsh, ‘Navigating Globalization: Immigration Policy in Canada and Australia, 1945-2007’ (2008) 23 Sociological Forum 786; Castles above note 7 at 130.

102 Castles above note 7 at 132.

103 As above at 136.

104 Walsh above note 101 at 799.

105 In 2015-16, women's labour force participation was 66% (compared to the male rate which has declined to 78%). Australian Bureau of Statistics, Gender Indicators, Australia (online) August 2016 <www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mf/4125.0>. This can be contrasted with a female labour force participation rate of 37% in 1971 and 55% in 2001. Australian Bureau of Statistics, 4102.0 – Australian Social Trends. Paid work: Changes in Labour Force Participation Across Generations (online) 2003 <http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/7d12b0f6763c78caca257061001cc588/4d240d4bbc0e533cca2570ec00006eed!OpenDocument> (accessed 30 November 2016). Women do, however, still work part-time much more often than men, especially if they are mothers of small children. On concerns about the birth rate see Brennan above note 41 and on the need for carers Hugo 2007 and 2009 above note 33.

106 Katherine Betts, ‘Immigration Policy under the Howard Government’ (2003) 38 Australian Journal of Social Issues 169; Castles above note 7 at 144.

107 Stephen FitzGerald, Immigration: A Commitment to Australia, The Committee to Advise on Australia's Immigration Policies (1988).

108 Walsh above note 101 at 806. See also Walsh above note 21.

109 Mary Crock, ‘Contract or Compact: Skilled Migration and the Dictates of Politics and Ideology’ (2001) 16 Georgetown Immigration Law Journal 133 at 138.

110 Bob Birrell, The Chains that Bind: Family Reunion Migration to Australia in the 1980s (Bureau of Immigration Research 1990).

111 The balance of family rule requires that the parents have at least half of their children permanently resident in Australia or have more children living permanently in Australia than any other country. For background see Mary Crock, Immigration and Refugee Law in Australia (Federation Press 1998) 84.

112 Birrell above note 110; Samantha Evans, ‘Welfare Dependency amongst Recently Arrived Aged Migrant Parents’ (1994) 2 People and Place 35; Bob Birrell, ‘Managing the Cost and Scale of Family Reunion: Current Dilemmas’ (1996) 4 People and Place 58.

113 Bob Birrell, Immigration Reform in Australia: Coalition Government Proposals and Outcomes Since March 1996 (Centre for Population and Urban Research Monash University 1997); Betts above note 106.

114 Betts above note 106 at 178.

115 About two thirds of the permanent intake is now under the skilled stream (this does, however, include also ‘dependants’). In 2015-16, the size of the family stream was 57,400 and the skill stream 128,550. See Department of Immigration and Border Protection above note 89 at 3.

116 Indeed, 2250 parent visas in 2013-14 is the highest quota reserved for these visas in the last 10 years – the numbers have varied from 1000 (in 2004-8 and 2010-11), to 2000 (in 2008-10 and 2011-12), to 2150 (in 2012-13).

117 Anna Boucher, ‘Familialism and Migrant Welfare Policy: Restrictions on Social Security Provision for Newly Arrived Immigrants’ (2014) 42 Policy and Politics 367.

118 Siew-Ean Khoo, Peter McDonald and Barbara Edgar, Contribution of Family Migration to Australia (Department of Immigration and Border Protection 2014) 5.

119 Productivity Commission above note 17.

120 Department of Immigration and Border Protection, New Temporary Visa for Sponsored Parents (online) 23 September 2016 <http://www.minister.border.gov.au/peterdutton/Pages/New-temporary-visa-for-sponsored-parents.aspx> (last accessed 30 November 2016).

121 Mares above note 4 at 410.

122 Morrison above note 95.

123 Australia is not alone in this regard; similar restrictions have been introduced, for example, in Canada. Chen and Thorpe above note 75; Bragg and Wong above note 75.

124 Crock above note 109 at 152.

125 Dauvergne above note 6 at 294.

126 Boucher (2016) above note 26.

127 See Khoo above note 118. See also Smith above note 10.

128 For instance, the Business Innovation and Investment program allows business owners and senior executives to migrate to Australia if they are prepared to invest at least $5 million into the Australian economy (and for $15 million one can become eligible for permanent residence after 12 months).

129 Walsh above note 21 at 873.

130 Hochschild above note 31 and accompanying text.

131 Wendy Brown, Undoing the Demos: Neoliberalism's Stealth Revolution (Zone Books 2015).

132 Williams above note 32 at 385.

133 Mares above note 4 at 407.

134 See, for instance, Tronto above note 40 (and others in the same footnote) about the arguments that all human beings need and receive care.

135 See, for example, Graham Hugo, ‘Migration and Development in Low-Income Countries: A Role for Destination Country Policy?’ (2012) 1 Migration and Development 24.

136 Baldassar above note 60; Baldassar above note 61; Baldassar and others above note 61; Wilding and Baldassar above note 62.

137 Fincher and others above note 20 at 57.

138 Iseult Honohan, ‘Reconsidering the Claim to Family Reunification in Migration’ (2009) 57 Political Studies 768 at 782. About these issues in the Canadian context, see Chen and Thorpe above note 75; Bragg and Wong above note 75.

139 As above at 5.

140 Belinda Probert, ‘“Grateful Slaves” or “Self-Made Women”: A Matter of Choice or Policy?’ (2002) 17 Australian Feminist Studies 7 at 15; also Brennan above note 41.

141 Over 40% of Australian women work part-time (compared to 15% of men). Australian Bureau of Statistics above note 105. For discussion see Leah F Vosko, Managing the Margins (Oxford University Press 2009) chapter 3.

142 Iain Campbell, Gillian Whitehouse and Janeen Baxter, ‘Australia: Casual Employment, Part-Time Employment and the Resilience of the Male-Breadwinner Model’ in Leah F Vosko, Martha MacDonald and Iain Campbell (eds) Gender and the Contours of Precarious Employment (Taylor & Francis 2009) 60.

143 Probert above note 140.

144 Craig and Jenkins above note 51; Horsfall and Dempsey above note 52.

145 Ho above note 28.

146 Zhou above note 74.

147 Hoang above note 15.

148 International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights opened for signature 16 December 1966 999 UNTS 171 entered into force 23 March 1976 art 23.

149 Anthias above note 12 at 103.

150 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Overseas Born Aussies Highest in Over a Century (online) 30 March 2016 <http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/mediareleasesbyCatalogue/35A203AB6DD3CA0BCA257600002314F7?OpenDocument> (last accessed 30 November 2016).

151 Productivity Commission above note 17.

152 Lunt above note 73; also Zhou above note 74.

153 Despite the 2010 row over the matter; see Mares above note 4 at 410.

154 Breny Mendoza, ‘Transnational Feminisms in Question’ (2002) 3 Feminist Theory 295.

155 Productivity Commission above note 55.