Defamation, Race and Racism

Abstract

Defamation law seeks to balance the protection of reputation and freedom of speech. It is known to have an inhibiting effect on the exercise of free speech, which can affect all forms of writing, including academic critique. Reputation is a highly individual interest. Consequently, defamation law is not an effective means of dealing with aspersions on aspects of collective identity, such as race. Increasingly, however, allegations of racism are being litigated in defamation claims in Australia. Because an allegation of racism affects individual reputation, it is more amenable to protection by defamation law than racist attacks. This article examines Australian defamation law's treatment of race and racism, focusing in particular on liability and defences, with an emphasis on the impact of defamation law on academic writing.

Notes

1 Rogers v Nationwide News Pty Ltd (2003) 216 CLR 327, 349 (Hayne J); [2003] HCA 52.

2 David Rolph, ‘Racial Discrimination Law as a Means of Protecting Collective Reputations’ in Matthew Rimmer (ed), Indigenous Intellectual Property: A Handbook of Contemporary Research (Edward Elgar 2015) 477 at 477–78.

3 Plato Films Ltd v Speidel [1961] AC 1090, 1138 (Lord Denning).

4 Berkoff v Burchill [1996] 4 All ER 1008, 1018 (Neill LJ); Radio 2UE Sydney Pty Ltd v Chesterton (2009) 238 CLR 460, 477; [2009] HCA 16 (French CJ, Gummow, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

5 Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520, 568 (per curiam); Dow Jones & Co Inc v Gutnick (2002) 212 CLR 575, 599; [2002] HCA 56 (Gleeson CJ, McHugh, Gummow and Hayne JJ).

6 See, for example, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights opened for signature 19 December 1966 999 UNTS 171 entered into force: 23 March 1976 art 17; Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted 10 December 1948 UNGA Res 217 A (III) art 12. Within Australia, see Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT) s 12; Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) s 13; Human Rights Act 2019 (Qld) s 25.

7 Ballina Shire Council v Ringland (1994) 33 NSWLR 680, 719–20 (Mahoney JA); Monis v The Queen (2013) 249 CLR 92, 128 (French CJ); [2013] HCA 4. See, generally, TRS Allan, ‘The Common Law as Constitution: Fundamental Rights and First Principles’ in Cheryl Saunders (ed.), Courts of Final Jurisdiction: The Mason Court in Australia (Federation Press 1996) 146 at 148.

8 Global Sportsman Pty Ltd v Mirror Newspapers Pty Ltd (1984) 2 FCR 82, 86–7 (per curiam); Mulholland v Australian Electoral Commission (2004) 220 CLR 181, 200; [2004] HCA 41 (Gleeson CJ).

9 See, generally, Michael Chesterman, Freedom of Speech in Australian Law: A Delicate Plant (Ashgate 2000).

10 See, for example, the First Amendment of the United States Constitution.

11 This was recognised in the landmark cases of Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills (1992) 177 CLR 1 and Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106.

12 See, for example, Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth (1992) 177 CLR 106, 150 (Brennan J); Theophanous v Herald & Weekly Times (1994) 182 CLR 104, 149 (Brennan J); Cunliffe v Commonwealth (1994) 182 CLR 272, 327 (Brennan J); Lange v Australian Broadcasting Corporation (1997) 189 CLR 520 (per curiam); Wotton v Queensland (2012) 246 CLR 1, 23–24 (Heydon J), 31 (Kiefel J); [2012] HCA 2; Attorney-General (SA) v Adelaide City Corporation (2013) 249 CLR 1, 73–74, 89 (Crennan and Kiefel JJ); [2013] HCA 3; Monis v The Queen (2013) 249 CLR 92, 189, 192, 206–07 (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ); [2013] HCA 4; Unions NSW v New South Wales (2013) 252 CLR 530, 551, 554 (French CJ, Hayne, Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ); [2013] HCA 58; Tajjour v New South Wales (2014) 254 CLR 508, 569 (Crennan, Kiefel and Bell JJ), 593 (Keane J); [2014] HCA 35; McCloy v New South Wales (2015) 257 CLR 178, 202–03 (French CJ, Kiefel, Bell and Keane JJ); [2015] HCA 34; Brown v Tasmania (2017) 261 CLR 328, 360, 374 (Kiefel CJ, Bell and Keane JJ), 398, 407, 410 (Nettle J), 430, 466, 475–76 (Gordon J), 503 (Edelman J); [2017] HCA 43; Clubb v Edwards (2019) 93 ALJR 448, 466, (Kiefel CJ, Bell and Keane JJ), 501–02 (Nettle J); [2019] HCA 11; Comcare v Banerji (2019) 93 ALJR 900, 910 (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane and Nettle JJ); [2019] HCA 23.

13 Only three State or Territory jurisdictions have a statutory protection of freedom of speech: Human Rights Act 2004 (ACT) s 16; Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) s 15; Human Rights Act 2019 (Qld) s 21.

14 376 US 279; 84 S Ct 710 (1964).

15 See, generally, Alastair Mullis and Andrew Scott, ‘The Swing of the Pendulum: Reputation, Expression and the Re-centering of English Libel Law’ (2012) 63 Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly 27.

16 As to the complex history of defamation law, see David Rolph, ‘Sources of Defamation Law’ in Justin Gleeson, James Watson and Elisabeth Peden (eds), Historical Foundations of Australian Law: Volume II Commercial Common Law (Federation Press 2013) 106–26.

17 The national, uniform defamation laws were introduced into each State and Territory in 2005 and early 2006 and came into effect across Australia in early 2006. See Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) and the cognate provisions in each State and Territory. Subsequent references will be to the New South Wales legislation.

18 This is reinforced by the internal choice of law rule for Australia prescribed by the national, uniform defamation laws, which requires the judge in a case where publication is sued upon in multiple Australian jurisdiction to identify the single state or territory which is most closely connected with the matter and to apply that law to the entirety of the proceeding. See Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 123; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 10; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 11; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 11; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 11; Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 11; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 11; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 11.

19 The current defamation law reform process is being led by the Attorney-General for New South Wales. See NSW Department of Communities and Justice, Review of Model Defamation Provisions (online) 28 July 2020 <https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/defamationreview> (last accessed 31 August 2020).

20 As to the history of defamation law, see David Rolph, ‘The Sources of Defamation Law’ in Justin Gleeson, James Watson and Elisabeth Peden (eds), Historical Foundations of Australian Law: Volume II Commercial Common Law (Federation Press 2013) 106–26.

21 David Rolph, ‘A Critique of the National, Uniform Defamation Laws’ (2008) 16 Torts Law Journal 207, 247.

22 ‘Themes in the Law of Torts’ (2007) 81 Australian Law Journal 609, 615.

23 Sellers v Lawrence (1742) Willes 413; (1742) 125 ER 1242, 1247 (Willes CJ); Hambly v Trott (1776) 1 Cowp 171; (1776) 98 ER 1136, 1138 (Lord Mansfield); Finlay v Chirney (1888) 20 QBD 404, 502–04 (Bowen LJ); Swan v Williams (Demolition) Pty Ltd (1987) 9 NSWLR 172, 178 (Samuels JA).

24 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 15(1); Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1956 (NT) s 5(1); Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1944 (NSW) s 2(1); Succession Act 1981 (Qld) s 66(1); Survival of Causes of Action Act 1940 (SA) s 2(1); Administration and Probate Act 1935 (Tas) s 27(1); Administration and Probate Act 1958 (Vic) s 29(1); Law Reform (Miscellaneous Provisions) Act 1941 (WA) s 4(1).

25 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 122; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 9; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 10; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 10; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 10; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 10; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 10. Despite the possibility of a claim for defamation of the dead being brought in Tasmania, none has been commenced in the last fifteen years.

26 Krahe v TCN Channel Nine Pty Ltd (1986) 4 NSWLR 536, 541 (Hunt J).

27 [1980] 2 NSWLR 380.

28 At 385 (citations omitted).

29 Trkulja v Google LLC (2017) 263 CLR 149; [2017] HCA 25, [35] (per curiam) (citations omitted). For further characterisations of the ‘ordinary, reasonable reader’ in defamation law, see Amalgamated Television Services Pty Ltd v Marsden (1998) 43 NSWLR 158, 165 (Hunt CJ at CL).

30 As to gender and the reasonable person in negligence, see Mayo Moran, Rethinking the Reasonable Person: An Egalitarian Reconstruction of the Objective Standard (Oxford University Press 2003) 1–2.

31 Slim v Daily Telegraph Ltd [1968] 2 QB 157, 171–72 (Diplock LJ); Reader’s Digest Services Pty Ltd v Lamb (1982) 150 CLR 500, 506 (Brennan J).

32 Reader’s Digest Services Pty Ltd v Lamb (1982) 150 CLR 500, 506 (Brennan J).

33 Radio 2UE Sydney Pty Ltd v Chesterton (2009) 238 CLR 460, 478–80; [2009] HCA 16 (French CJ, Gummow, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

34 See, for example, Slim v Daily Telegraph Ltd [1968] 2 QB 157, 171 (Diplock LJ); Polly Peck Plc v Trelford [1986] QB 1000, 1020 (O’Connor LJ); Burrows v Knightley (1987) 10 NSWLR 651, 654 (Hunt J).

35 Parmiter v Coupland (1840) 6 M & W 105; (1840) 151 ER 340, 341–42 (Parke B).

36 Scott v Sampson (1882) 8 QBD 491, 503 (Cave J).

37 Tournier v National Provincial and Union Bank of England [1924] 1 KB 461, 487 (Atkin LJ); Sim v Stretch [1936] 2 All ER 1237, 1240 (Lord Atkin).

38 Radio 2UE Sydney Pty Ltd v Chesterton (2009) 238 CLR 460; [2009] HCA 16 (French CJ, Gummow, Kiefel and Bell JJ).

39 Boyd v Mirror Newspapers Ltd [1980] 2 NSWLR 449, 452–53 (Hunt J).

40 Youssoupoff v Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures Ltd (1934) 50 TLR 581, 584 (Scrutton LJ), 586 (Slesser LJ).

41 Ettingshausen v Australian Consolidated Press Ltd (1991) 23 NSWLR 443, 447–49 (Hunt J).

42 Robert C. Post, ‘The Social Foundations of Defamation Law’ (1986) 74 California Law Review 691, 719–20.

43 Berkoff v Burchill [1996] 4 All ER 1008, 1020 (Phillips LJ).

44 Boyd v Mirror Newspapers Ltd [1980] 2 NSWLR 449, 456 (Hunt J).

45 Berkoff v Burchill [1996] 4 All ER 1008. Narrowly, on the particular facts of the case, this imputation was left to the jury.

46 Carey v Nationwide News Pty Ltd [2014] NSWDC 73, [19]–[20].

47 At [22].

48 Carey v Nationwide News Pty Ltd (No 2) [2014] NSWDC 93, [9]–[10].

49 For a discussion of the relevant case law, see Lawrence McNamara, Reputation and Defamation (Oxford University Press 2007) 193–97.

50 Loukas v Young [1968] 3 NSWR 549, 550 (Taylor J).

51 John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd v Rivkin (2003) 201 ALR 77, 109; [2003] HCA 50 (Kirby J). See, for example, Cross v Denley (1952) 52 SR(NSW) 112, 115 (Owen J); Dowding v Ockerby [1962] WAR 110, 119 (Wolff CJ).

52 Tolley v J.S. Fry & Sons Ltd [1931] AC 333.

53 See, for example, Rivkin v Amalgamated Television Services Pty Ltd [2001] NSWSC 432, [30] (Bell J); Tassone v Kirkham [2014] SADC 134, [35] (Cole DCJ). However, see also Kelly v John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd [2003] NSWSC 586, [32]–[38], [40] (Levine J); John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd v Rivkin (2003) 201 ALR 77, 109; [2003] HCA 50.

54 (1984) Aust Torts Reports ¶80–691.

55 At 68,944 (Moffitt P).

56 At 68,945.

57 See Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 26.

58 See Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 33.

59 Chappell v Mirror Newspapers Ltd (1984) Aust Torts Reports ¶80–691, 68,948.

60 At 68,955.

61 As to the facts of this case, see Vakras v Cripps [205] VSCA 193, [2]–[6] (per curiam).

62 Vakras v Cripps [2015] VSCA 193, [134] (per curiam).

63 At [4] (per curiam).

64 At [150] (per curiam).

65 At [152] (per curiam).

66 At [425] (per curiam).

67 YC. Kux, ‘Markson Sparks’ Gazette of Law and Journalism (online) 10 August 2016 < https://glj.com.au/sexist-storm-in-a-tweet/> (last accessed 31 August 2020). Moselmane discontinued his action in July 2017: YC. Kux, ‘Muslim Settler’, Gazette of Law and Journalism(online) 31 July 2017 < https://glj.com.au/pell-mell/> (last accessed 31 August 2020).

68 Macleod v Fraenkel [2019] QDC 203, [29] (Morzone DCJ).

69 Stephen Murray, ‘From Behind the Curtin’, Gazette of Law and Journalism, 29 January 2020.

70 (2016) 93 NSWLR 639, 645 (Ward JA); [2016] NSWCA 296.

71 Toben v Jones (2003) 129 FCR 515; [2003] FCAFC 137.

72 Toben v Nationwide News Pty Ltd (2016) 93 NSWLR 639, 662; [2016] NSWCA 296.

73 Toben v Nationwide News Pty Ltd (2016) 93 NSWLR 639, 663; [2016] NSWCA 296.

74 Kunoth-Monks v Healy [2013] NTSC 74, [27] (Mildren AJ).

75 At [34].

76 At [50] (Mildren AJ).

77 At [51]–[54] (Mildren AJ).

78 At [78] (Mildren AJ).

79 At [97], [105] (Mildren AJ).

80 At [126].

81 Reid v Dukic [2016] ACTSC 344, [1] (Burns J).

82 At [2] (Burns J).

83 At [7] (Burns J).

84 At [66] (Burns J).

85 At [68], [70] (Burns J).

86 Trad v Harbour Radio Pty Ltd [2009] NSWSC 750, [8] (McClellan CJ at CL).

87 At [2] (McClellan CJ at CL).

88 At [27]–[97] (McClellan CJ at CL).

89 At [104].

90 At [135]–[140] (McClellan CJ at CL).

91 Trad v Harbour Radio Pty Ltd [2011] NSWCA 61, [81] (per curiam).

92 At [105]–[113] (per curiam).

93 Harbour Radio Pty Ltd v Trad (2012) 247 CLR 31, 49–50 per Gummow, Hayne and Bell JJ; [2012] HCA 44.

94 Casley v Australian Broadcasting Corporation [2013] VSCA 182, [1] (Hansen JA).

95 See, for example, Limitation of Actions Act 1958 (Vic) ss 5(1AAA), 23B. Changes were made to the limitation period for defamation claims as part of the introduction of the national, uniform defamation laws in 2005–06.

96 Casley v Australian Broadcasting Corporation [2013] VSCA 182, [9] (Hansen JA).

97 At [10] (Hansen JA).

98 Casley v Australian Broadcasting Corporation [2013] VSC 251.

99 Casley v Australian Broadcasting Corporation [2013] VSCA 182, [75] (Hansen JA), [76] (Robson AJA).

100 Stephen Murray, ‘Instagram cyclone hits the Pelican café’ Gazette of Law and Journalism (online) 7 November 2019 <https://glj.com.au/deborah-ann-wilson-trading-as-pelican-takeaway-cafe-v-cyrell-paule/> (last accessed 31 August 2020).

101 Stephen Murray, ‘Café Outburst Settles Down’, Gazette of Law and Journalism (online) 6 January 2020 https://glj.com.au/deborah-ann-wilson-trading-as-pelican-takeaway-cafe-v-cyrell-paule-anor/ (last accessed 31 August 2020).

102 Luke v Richardson [2014] WADC 27, [2]-[6] (Bowden DCJ).

103 At [8] (Bowden DCJ).

104 At [19] (Bowden DCJ).

105 At [123]–[124].

106 At [125] (Bowden DCJ).

107 At [149] (Bowden DCJ).

108 At [154] (Bowden DCJ).

109 At [218] (Bowden DCJ).

110 [2018] FCA 1328.

111 At [3] (Wigney J).

112 At [18] (Wigney J).

113 At [19] (Wigney J).

114 At [20] (Wigney J).

115 At [32].

116 At [33] (Wigney J).

117 At [35] (Wigney J).

118 At [40] (Wigney J).

119 At [44] (Wigney J).

120 At [49] (Wigney J).

121 At [52] (Wigney J).

122 At [55] (Wigney J).

123 At [65] (Wigney J).

124 At [68] (Wigney J).

125 At [68] (Wigney J).

126 At [71], [73] (Wigney J).

127 At [79] (Wigney J).

128 At [85].

129 At [103], [109]–[110].

130 At [104] (Wigney J).

131 At [120].

132 At [201].

133 Stephen Murray, ‘Thanks for the donations’, Gazette of Law and Journalism(online) 27 November 2018 <https://glj.com.au/osman-faruqi-v-mark-latham-2/> (last accessed 31 August 2020).

134 There are other defences to defamation, such as the common law and statutory defences of innocent dissemination and the statutory defence of triviality, but these are not of direct relevance to public discussions of race and racism. As to the common law defence of innocent dissemination, see Thompson v Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd (1996) (1986) 186 CLR 574. As to the statutory defence of innocent dissemination, see Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139C; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 29; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 32; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 32; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 30; Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 32; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 32; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 32. As to the statutory defence of triviality, see Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139D; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 30; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 33; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 33; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 31; Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 33; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 33; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 33.

135 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 135; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 22; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 25; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 25; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 23; Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 25; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 25; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 25.

136 David Rolph, Defamation Law (Thomson Reuters 2016, 1st edn) [9.30]. See, for example, Craftsman Homes Australia Pty Ltd v TCN Channel Nine Australia Pty Ltd [2006] NSWSC 519 (allegation that plaintiff ‘shonky builder’ one of fact, proven true by four instances of shonky building).

137 Clarke v Norton [1910] VLR 494, 499 (Cussen J); John Fairfax Publications Pty Ltd v O’Shane (2005) Aust Torts Reports ¶81–789, 67,436 (Giles JA); [2005] NSWCA 164.

138 As to the statutory defences of honest opinion, see Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139B; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 28; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 31; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 31; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 29; Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 31; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 31; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 31.

139 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139B(1)(c), 139B(2)(c), 139B(3)(c); Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 28(1)(c), 28(2)(c), 28(3)(c); Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 31(1)(c), 31(2)(c), 31(3)(c); Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 31(1)(c), 31(2)(c), 31(3)(c); Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 29(1)(c), 29(2)(c), 29(3)(c); Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 31(1)(c), 31(2)(c), 31(3)(c); Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 31(1)(c), 31(2)(c), 31(3)(c); Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 31(1)(c), 31(2)(c), 31(3)(c).

140 As Lord Denning MR pithily stated in London Artists Ltd v Littler [1969] 2 QB 375, 391, ‘In order to be fair, the commentator must get his basic facts right.’ As to the position under statute, see Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139B(1)(b), 139B(2)(b), 139B(3)(b); Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 28(1)(b), 28(2)(b), 28(3)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 31(1)(b), 31(2)(b), 31(3)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 31(1)(b), 31(2)(b), 31(3)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 29(1)(b) 29(2)(b), 29(3)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 31(1)(b), 31(2)(b), 31(3)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 31(1)(b), 31(2)(b), 31(3)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 31(1)(b), 31(2)(b), 31(3)(b).

141 South Hetton Coal Co Ltd v North-Eastern News Association Ltd [1894] 1 QB 133, 141 (Lopes LJ).

142 Orr v Isles [1965] NSWR 677, 696–97 (Taylor J); Pryke v Advertiser Newspapers Ltd (1984) 37 SASR 173, 191 (King CJ).

143 Merivale v Carson (1887) 20 QBD 275, 280 (Lord Esher MR); McQuire v Western Morning News Co [1903] 2 KB 100, 109 (Collins MR).

144 As to the common law position, see Gibbons v Duffell (1932) 47 CLR 520, 525 (Gavan Duff, Rich and Dixon JJ). As to the position under the national, uniform defamation laws, see Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 137(2)(a); Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 24(2)(a); Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 29(2)(a); Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 29(2)(a); Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 25(2)(a); Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 29(2)(a); Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 25(2)(a); Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 25(2)(a).

145 As to the common law position, see Mann v O’Neill (1997) 191 CLR 204 (Brennan CJ, Dawson, Toohey and Gaudron JJ). As to the position under the national, uniform defamation laws, see Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 137(2)(b); Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 24(2)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 29(2)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 29(2)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 25(2)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 29(2)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 25(2)(b); Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 25(2)(b).

146 Gipps v McElhone (1881) 2 LR(NSW) 18, 23 (Martin CJ), 25 (Windeyer J).

147 Bretherton v Kaye [1971] VR 111, 116 (Kaye J).

148 As to reports of parliamentary proceedings, see Wason v Walter (1868) LR 4 QB 73, 82–83, 87 (Cockburn CJ). As to reports of judicial proceedings, see Kimber v Press Association Ltd [1893] 1 QB 65, 68 (Lord Esher MR).

149 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139(1), (2); Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 26(1), (2); Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 29(1), (2); Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 29(1), (2); Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 27(1), (2); Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 29(1), (2); Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 29(1), (2); Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 29(1), (2).

150 Cush v Dillon (2011) 243 CLR 298, 305 (French CJ, Crennan and Kiefel JJ); [2011] HCA 30.

151 Toogood v Spyring (1834) 1 C M & R 181; (1834) 149 ER 1044, 1044–45 (Parke B).

152 Howe & McColough v Lees (1910) 11 CLR 361, 369 (Griffith CJ); Watts v Times Newspapers Ltd [1997] QB 650, 660 (Hirst LJ).

153 Adam v Ward [1917] AC 309, 340 (Lord Atkinson).

154 Horrocks v Lowe [1975] AC 135, 149 (Lord Diplock); Roberts v Bass (2002) 212 CLR 1, 31 (Gaudron, McHugh and Gummow JJ); [2002] HCA 57.

155 Toogod v Spyring (1834) 1 C M & R 181; (1834) 149 ER 1044, 1045 (Parke B); Coxhead v Richards (1846) 2 CB 569; 135 ER 1069, 1083 (Cresswell J), 1085 (Erle ; Pullman v Walter Hill & Co Ltd [1891] 1 QB 524, 528 (Lord Esher MR).

156 Loveday v Sun Newspapers Ltd (1938) 59 CLR 503, 515 (Starke J); Bass v TCN Channel Nine Pty Ltd (2003) 60 NSWLR 251, 260 (Handley JA); [2003] NSWCA 118.

157 Civil Law (Wrongs) Act 2002 (ACT) s 139A; Defamation Act 2006 (NT) s 27; Defamation Act 2005 (NSW) s 30; Defamation Act 2005 (Qld) s 30; Defamation Act 2005 (SA) s 28; Defamation Act 2005 (Tas) s 30; Defamation Act 2005 (Vic) s 30; Defamation Act 2005 (WA) s 30.

158 David Rolph, Defamation Law (Thomson Reuters 2016, 1st edn) [11.180].

159 Wake v John Fairfax & Sons Ltd [1973] 1 NSWLR 43, 48 (per curiam); Morosi v Mirror Newspapers Ltd [1977] 2 NSWLR 749, 782 (per curiam); Stephens v West Australian Newspapers Ltd (1994) 182 CLR 211, 250 (Brennan J).

160 Reynolds v Times Newspapers Ltd [2001] 2 AC 127; Grant v Torstar Corp [2009] 3 SCR 640; 2009 SCC 61; Durie v Gardiner [2018] 3 NZLR 131; [2018] NZCA 278.

161 See NSW Department of Communities and Justice, Review of Model Defamation Provisions (online) 28 July 2020 <https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/defamationreview> (last accessed 31 August 2020).

162 See NSW Department of Communities and Justice, Review of Model Defamation Provisions (online) 28 July 2020 <https://www.justice.nsw.gov.au/defamationreview> (last accessed 31 August 2020).