Law and Gender in Translation

Abstract

Translation provides both an analytical tool and conceptual model for feminist legal research. Drawing on translation studies, feminist theory, and scholarship on gender and legal language, we show how translation assists in identifying how gendered points of difference and friction in law are articulated in communicative practice. The article moves from translation as the mechanical movement of meaning across linguistic boundaries to a sociocultural conception of translation as transformative of meanings assigned to ideas, knowledge, representations, and practices. We outline a conceptual agenda that addresses the relationship between law, gender and translation showing how focus on context, circulation and change harnesses and enables feminist legal method and research. Gendered aspects of linguistic practice and discourse include the power to interpret, translate and provide particularistic representations that both silence and enable. The article proposes a framework of use in promoting new modes of interdisciplinary research and dialogue in feminist legal studies.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 See, for instance, Piotr Blumczynski, Ubiquitous Translation (Routledge 2018); Lawrence Venuti, The Translator’s Invisibility: A History of Translation (Routledge 1995); Maria Tymoczko, Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators (Routledge 2007). On the ‘cultural turn’, see Mary Snell-Hornby, The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints? (John Benjamins Publishing 2006).

2 Talal Asad, Secular Translations: Nation-State, Modern Self, and Calculative Reason (Columbia University Press 2018); Lydia H Liu, Translingual Practice: Literature, National Culture, and Translated Modernity – China, 1900–1937 (Stanford University Press 1995).

3 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘The Politics of Translation’ in Lawrence Venuti (ed) The Translation Studies Reader (Routledge 2000) 397.

4 Luise von Flotow, ‘Feminist Translation: Contexts, Practices and Theories’ (1991) 4(2) TTR: Traduction, Terminologie et Rédaction 69.

5 Judith Butler, Precarious Life: The Powers of Mourning and Violence (Verso 2004); Lori Chamberlain, ‘Gender and the Metaphories of Translation’ (1988) 13(3) Signs 454; Claudia de Lima Costa, ‘Being Here and Writing There: Gender and the Politics of Translation in a Brazilian Landscape’ (2000) 25(3) Signs 727; Donna Haraway, ‘Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective’ (1988) 14(3) Feminist Studies 575; Hala Kamal, ‘Translating Women and Gender: The Experience of Translating “The Encyclopedia of Women and Islamic Cultures” into Arabic’ (2008) 36(3-4) Women’s Studies Quarterly 254; N Rajaram and Vaishali Zararia, ‘Translating Women’s Human Rights in a Globalizing World: The Spiral Process in Reducing Gender Injustice in Baroda, India’ (2009) 9(4) Global Networks 462; Kornelia Slavova and Ann Phoenix, ‘Living in Translation: Voicing and Inscribing Women’s Lives and Practices’ (2011) 18(4) European Journal of Women’s Studies 331; Lucy Tatman, ‘Subjects Through Translation’ (2011) 18(4) European Journal of Women’s Studies 425; Millie Thayer, ‘Translations and Refusals: Resignifying Meanings as Feminist Political Practice’ (2010) 36(1) Feminist Studies 200; Linda M G Zerilli, ‘Toward a Feminist Theory of Judgment’ (2009) 34(2) Signs 295; Ingrid Palmary, ‘A Politics of Feminist Translation: Using Translation to Understand Gendered Meaning-Making in Research’ (2014) 39(3) Signs 576.

6 Zeynep Gulsah Capan, Filipe dos Reis and Maj Grasten (eds) The Politics of Translation in International Relations (Palgrave 2021); Maj Grasten, Rule of Law or Rule by Lawyers? On the Politics of Translation in Global Governance (PhD Thesis, Copenhagen Business School, 2016); Miriam Bak-McKenna, ‘Remaking the Law of Encounter: Comparative International Law as Transformative Translation’ in Zeynep Gulsah Capan, Filipe dos Reis, and Maj Grasten (eds) The Politics of Translation in International Relations (Palgrave 2021) 67; Miriam Bak-McKenna, ‘Feminism in Translation: Reframing Human Rights Law through Transnational Islamic Feminist Networks’ in Rebecca Ruth Gould and Kayvan Tahmasebian (eds) The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Activism (Routledge 2020) 317.

7 Lucinda M Finley, ‘Breaking Women’s Silence in Law: The Dilemma of the Gendered Nature of Legal Reasoning’ (1989) 64(5) Notre Dame Law Review 886, 904 (emphasis added).

8 Alison Diduck and Katherine O’Donovan, ‘Feminism and Families: Plus Ça Change?’ in Alison Diduck and Katherine O’Donovan (eds) Feminist Perspectives on Family Law (Routledge-Cavendish 2006) 1, 1.

9 Elizabeth Mertz, ‘Legal Language: Pragmatics, Poetics, and Social Power’ (1994) 23(1) Annual Review of Anthropology 435, 441.

10 As above.

11 See, for instance, Deborah L Rhode, ‘Feminist Critical Theories’ (1990) 42(3) Stanford Law Review 617; Kimberlé Crenshaw, ‘Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics’ (1989) 1 University of Chicago Legal Forum 139; Rosemary Hunter, ‘Deconstructing the Subjects of Feminism: The Essentialism Debate in Feminist Theory and Practice’ (1996) 6(1) Australian Feminist Law Journal 135.

12 See, for instance, Carole Pateman, The Disorder of Women: Democracy, Feminism, and Political Theory (Stanford University Press 1989); Dianne Otto, ‘International Human Rights Law: Towards Rethinking Sex/Gender Dualism’ in Margaret Davies and Vanessa E Munro (eds) The Ashgate Research Companion to Feminist Legal Theory (Ashgate Publishing 2013) 197; Dianne Otto, ‘Lost in Translation: Re-Scripting the Sexed Subjects of International Human Rights Law’ in Anne Orford (ed) International Law and its Others (Cambridge University Press 2006) 318. In this journal, see, for example, Rebecca Scott Bray, ‘Suturing The Narrative Body’ (1999) 13(1) Australian Feminist Law Journal 119; Emma Cunliffe, ‘(This is Not a) Story: Using Court Records to Explore Judicial Narratives in R v Kathleen Folbigg’ (2007) 27(1) Australian Feminist Law Journal 71; Elyse Methven, ‘“A Woman’s Tongue”: Representations of Gender and Swearing in Australian Legal and Media Discourse’ (2020) 46(1) Australian Feminist Law Journal 57.

13 Carol Smart, ‘Law’s Power, the Sexed Body, and Feminist Discourse’ (1990) 17(2) Journal of Law and Society 194. See also Carol Smart, Feminism and the Power of Law (Routledge 1989); Carol Smart, Law, Crime and Sexuality: Essays in Feminism (Sage 1995).

14 Ulrike Wanitzek, ‘Bulsa Marriage Law and Practice: Women as Social Actors in a Patriarchal Society’ in E Adriaan B van Rouveroy van Nieuwaal and Werner Zips (eds) Sovereignty, Legitimacy, and Power in West African Societies: Perspectives from Legal Anthropology (Lit Verlag 1998) 119.

15 See for instance, Bernard S Jackson, Semiotics and Legal Theory (Routledge and Kegan Paul 1985); Domenico Carzo and Bernard S Jackson (eds) Semiotics, Law and Social Science (Gangemi 1985); Gregory Leyh, Legal Hermeneutics: History, Theory, and Practice (University of California Press 1992); Austin Sarat and Thomas Kearns (eds) The Rhetoric of Law (University of Michigan Press 1994); Peter Goodrich, Reading the Law: A Critical Introduction to Legal Method and Technique (Blackwell 1986); Peter Goodrich, Legal Discourse: Studies in Linguistics, Rhetoric and Legal Analysis (Macmillan 1987).

16 Laura Nader, ‘The Anthropological Study of Law’ (1965) 67(6) American Anthropologist 3; Jean Comaroff, Body of Power, Spirit of Resistance: The Culture and History of a South African People (University of Chicago Press 1985); Rosemary J Coombe, ‘The Properties of Culture and the Politics of Possessing Identity: Native Claims in the Cultural Appropriation Controversy’ (1993) 6(2) Canadian Journal of Law & Jurisprudence 249.

17 Patricia J Williams, The Alchemy of Race and Rights: Diary of a Law Professor (Harvard University Press 1991); Derrick Bell, And We Are Not Saved: The Elusive Quest for Racial Justice (Basic Books 1987); Richard Delgado, ‘The Imperial Scholar: Reflections on a Review of Civil Rights Literature’ (1984) 132(3) University of Pennsylvania Law Review 561.

18 See Jacques Derrida, Force de Loi (Galilée 1994) 35–8; Richard Delgado, ‘Storytelling for Oppositionists and Others: A Plea for Narrative’ (1988) 87(8) Michigan Law Review 2411; Duncan Kennedy, ‘A Semiotics of Critique’ (2001) 22(3-4) Cardozo Law Review 1147; Mark Sanders, Ambiguities of Witnessing: Law and Literature in the Time of a Truth Commissions (Stanford University Press 2007).

19 Anthony G Amsterdam and Randy Hertz, ‘An Analysis of Closing Arguments to a Jury’ (1992) 37(1-2) New York Law School Law Review 55; Robert P Charrow and Veda R Charrow, ‘Making Legal Language Understandable: A Psycholinguistic Study of Jury Instructions’ (1979) 79(7) Columbia Law Review 1306.

20 James Boyd White, Justice as Translation: An Essay in Cultural and Legal Criticism (The University of Chicago Press 1990).

21 Clark D Cunningham, ‘The Lawyer as Translator, Representation as Text: Towards an Ethnography of Legal Discourse’ (1992) 77(6) Cornell Law Review 1298; William LF Felstiner and Austin Sarat, ‘Enactments of Power: Negotiating Reality and Responsibility in Lawyer-Client Interactions’ (1992) 77(6) Cornell Law Review 1447.

22 Mark Goodale and Sally Engle Merry (eds) The Practice of Human Rights: Tracking Law between the Global and the Local (Cambridge University Press 2007); Boaventura de Sousa Santos, ‘The Future of the World Social Forum: The Work of Translation’ (2005) 48(2) Development 15; Ziya Umut Türem and Andrea Ballestero, ‘Regulatory Translations: Expertise and Affect in Global Legal Fields’ (2014) 21(1) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 1.

23 Sally Engle Merry, ‘Anthropology, Law, and Transnational Processes’ (1992) 21(1) Annual Review of Anthropology 357; Sally Engle Merry, Human Rights and Gender Violence: Translating International Law into Local Justice (University of Chicago Press 2006); Sally Engle Merry, ‘Transnational Human Rights and Local Activism: Mapping the Middle’ (2006) 108(1) American Anthropologist 38.

24 Laura A Foster, ‘Critical Cultural Translation: A Socio-Legal Framework for Regulatory Orders’ (2014) 21(1) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 79; Kregg Hetherington, ‘Regular Soybeans: Translation and Framing in the Ontological Politics of a Coup’ (2014) 21(1) Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies 55. Among International Relations scholars addressing global law issues, see Tobias Berger, Global Norms and Local Courts: Translating ‘the Rule of Law’ in Bangladesh (Oxford University Press 2017); Lisbeth Zimmermann, Global Norms with a Local Face: Rule-of-Law Promotion and Norm-Translation (Cambridge University Press 2017); Susanne Zwingel, Translating International Women’s Rights: The CEDAW Convention in Context (Palgrave Macmillan 2016).

25 See Matthew Canfield, ‘Banana Brokers: Communicative Labor, Translocal Translation, and Transnational Law’ (2019) 31(1) Public Culture 69; Tine Destrooper, ‘The Travel, Translation and Transformation of Human Rights Norms’ in Esperança Bielsa and Dionysios Kapsaskis (eds) The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Globalization (Routledge 2020) 441; Shweta Singh, ‘In between the Ulemas and Local Warlords in Afghanistan: Critical Perspectives on the “Everyday”, Norm Translation, and UNSCR 1325’ (2020) 22(4) International Feminist Journal of Politics 504; Kristina Simion, Rule of Law Intermediaries: Brokering Influence in Myanmar (Cambridge University Press 2021).

26 Jeremy Munday, ‘Translation Studies’ (2006) 14(1) The Year’s Work in Critical and Cultural Theory 195, 195.

27 Zeynep Gulsah Capan, Filipe dos Reis and Maj Grasten, ‘The Politics of Translation in International Relations’ in Zeynep Gulsah Capan, Filipe dos Reis and Maj Grasten (eds) The Politics of Translation in International Relations (Palgrave 2021) 1 at 2.

28 See, for instance, Susan Gal, Julia Kowalski and Erin Moore, ‘Rethinking Translation in Feminist NGOs: Rights and Empowerment across Borders’ (2015) 22(4) Social Politics 610.

29 Rolando Vázquez, ‘Translation as Erasure: Thoughts on Modernity’s Epistemic Violence’ (2011) 24(1) Journal of Historical Sociology 27, 29.

30 Pinar Bilgin, ‘On the “Does Theory Travel?” Question: Traveling with Edward Said’ in Zeynep Gulsah Capan, Filipe dos Reis and Maj Grasten (eds) The Politics of Translation in International Relations (Palgrave 2021) 245.

31 Leila Brännström and Markus Gunneflo, ‘Swedish Foreign Policy Feminisms: Women, Social Democracy and Capitalism’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 207.

32 Andrew Chesterman, Memes of Translation (John Benjamins Publishing 1997); John Cunnison Catford, A Linguistic Theory of Translation: An Essay in Applied Linguistics (Oxford University Press 1965).

33 Capan and others, above note 27 at 3.

34 As above at 6.

35 Bak-McKenna, ‘Remaking the Law of Encounter: Comparative International Law as Transformative Translation’, above note 6.

36 On the ‘cultural turn’, see Mary Snell-Hornby, The Turns of Translation Studies: New Paradigms or Shifting Viewpoints? (John Benjamins Publishing 2006).

37 Walter Benjamin, Illuminations (Schocken Books 1968).

38 Venuti, above note 1; Maria Tymoczko, Enlarging Translation, Empowering Translators (Routledge 2007).

39 Teraswini Niranjana, Siting Translation: History, Post-Structuralism, and the Colonial Context (University of California Press 1992) 1 (emphasis altered).

40 Vázquez, above note 29 at 27.

41 Rosemary Grey, ‘Translating Gender Diversity In International Criminal Law: An Impossible But Necessary Goal’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 163.

42 Niranjana, above note 39.

43 Robert JC Young, Postcolonialism: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford University Press 2003) 138.

44 Edward W Said, Orientalism (Vintage Books 1979).

45 Eric Cheyfitz, The Poetics of Imperialism: Translation and Colonization from The Tempest to Tarzan (Oxford University Press 1997). See also Vicente Rafael, Contracting Colonialism: Translation and Christian Conversion in Tagalog Society under Early Spanish Rule (Duke University Press 1993); Douglas Robinson, Translation and Empire: Postcolonial Theories Explained (St Jerome 1997); Sabine Fenton and Paul Moon, ‘The Translation of the Treaty of Waitangi: A Case of Disempowerment’ in Maria Tymoczko and Edwin Gentzler (eds) Translation and Power (University of Massachusetts Press 2002) 25.

46 See, for instance, Brenna Bhandar, Colonial Lives of Property: Law, Land, and Racial Regimes of Ownership (Duke University Press 2018).

47 Maria Tymoczko, Translation in a Postcolonial Context: Early Irish Literature in English Translation (St Jerome Publishing 1999).

48 Homi Bhabha, The Location of Culture (Routledge 1994). For an overview of various ‘cultural translation’ approaches, see Anthony Pym, ‘Cultural Translation’ in Anthony Pym, Exploring Translation Theories (Routledge 2010) 143.

49 Chamberlain, above note 5 at 460.

50 Adrienne Rich, ‘Our Whole Life’, The New Republic (New York), 2 May 1970.

51 Key publications in Feminist translation studies include: Sherry Simon, Gender in Translation: Cultural Identity and the Politics of Transmission (Routledge 1996); Luise von Flotow, Translation and Gender: Translating in the ‘Era of Feminism’ (St Jerome 1997); Carol S Maier, ‘A Woman in Translation, Reflecting’ (1985) 17(1) Translation Review 4.

52 See, for instance, Kate Millett, Sexual Politics (Doubleday 1970).

53 Margaret A Simons, Beauvoir and the Second Sex: Feminism, Race, and the Origins of Existentialism (Rowman & Littlefield 1999) 62.

54 Olga Castro and Emek Ergun, ‘Translation and Feminism’ in Fruela Fernández and Jonathan Evans (eds) The Routledge Handbook of Translation and Politics (Routledge 2018) 125 at 133.

55 See, for instance, María Laura Spoturno, ‘On Borderlands and Translation: The Spanish Versions of Gloria Anzaldúa’s Seminal Work’ in Luise von Flotow and Hala Kamal (eds) The Routledge Handbook of Translation, Feminism and Gender (Routledge 2020) 239.

56 Castro and Ergun, above note 54 at 128.

57 See, for instance, Suzanne McCarthy, Valiant or Virtuous? Gender Bias in Bible Translation (Wipf & Stock 2019): Luise von Flotow, ‘Women, Bibles, Ideologies’ (2000) 13(1) TTR: Traduction, Terminologie et Rédaction 9.

58 Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, ‘The Politics of Translation’ in Lawrence Venuti (ed) The Translation Studies Reader (Routledge 2004) 397 at 397.

59 Michel Serres, La Traduction: Hermès III [The Translation: Hermès III] (Éditions de Minuit 1974).

60 Michel Callon, ‘Some Elements of a Sociology of Translation: Domestication of the Scallops and the Fishermen of St Brieuc Bay’ (1984) 32(1 suppl) The Sociological Review 196; Bruno Latour, Science in Action (Open University Press 1987); Bruno Latour, Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to Actor-Network-Theory (Oxford University Press 2005).

61 Callon, above note 60.

62 Michel Callon and Bruno Latour write: ‘By translation we understand all the negotiations, intrigues, calculations, acts of persuasion and violence thanks for which an actor or force takes, or causes to be conferred on itself, authority to speak or act on behalf of another actor or force’ in Michel Callon and Bruno Latour, ‘Unscrewing the Big Leviathan: How Actors Macrostructure Reality and How Sociologists Help Them to Do So’ in K Knorr-Cetina and AV Cicoural (eds) Advances in Social Theory and Methodology: Toward an Integration of Micro- and Macro-Sociologies (Routledge & Kegan Paul 1981) 277 at 279.

63 Bhabha, above note 48.

64 Michel Callon, ‘Struggles and Negotiations to Define What Is Problematic and What Is Not: The Socio-logic Translation’ in Karin D Knorr, Roger Krohn and Richard Whitley (eds) The Social Process of Scientific Investigation (D Reidel Publishing 1980) 197 at 211.

65 Agustin Laó-Montes, ‘Afro-Latinidades: Bridging Blackness and Latinidad’ in Nancy Raquel Mirabal and Agustin Laó-Montes (eds) Technofuturos: Critical Interventions in Latina/o Studies (Lexington Books 2007) 117.

66 Caren Kaplan, ‘The Politics of Location as Transnational Feminist Practice’ in Inderpal Grewal and Caren Kaplan (eds) Scattered Hegemonies: Postmodernity and Transnational Feminist Practices (University of Minnesota Press 1994) 137.

67 Donna Haraway, ‘Situated Knowledges: The Science Question in Feminism and the Privilege of Partial Perspective’ (1988) 14(3) Feminist Studies 575.

68 Claudia de Lima Costa and Sonia E Alvarez, ‘Dislocating the Sign: Towards a Translocal Feminist Politics of Translation’ (2014) 39(3) Signs 557 at 557.

69 As above.

70 Haraway, above note 67 at 589.

71 As above at 579.

72 Karen Engle, ‘Female Subjects of Public International Law: Human Rights and the Exotic Other Female’ (1992) 26 New England Law Review 1509; Felice D Gaer, ‘And Never the Twain Shall Meet? The Struggle to Establish Women’s Rights as International Human Rights’ in Carol Elizabeth Lockwood and others (eds) The International Human Rights of Women: Instruments of Change (American Bar Association 1998) 4; Arvonne S Fraser, ‘Becoming Human: The Origins and Development of Women’s Human Rights’ (1999) 21(4) Human Rights Quarterly 853.

73 Engle, above note 72.

74 As above at 1509; Karen Engle, ‘International Human Rights and Feminisms: When Discourses Keep Meeting’ in Doris Buss and Ambreena Manji (eds) International Law: Modern Feminist Approaches (Hart Publishing 2005) 47; Chandra Talpade Mohanty, ‘Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses’ in Chandra Talpade Mohanty, Ann Russo and Lourdes Torres (eds) Third World Women and the Politics of Feminism (Indiana University Press 1991) 51 at 70.

75 Ratna Kapur, ‘Un-Veiling Equality: Disciplining the “Other” Woman through Human Rights Discourse’ in Anver M Emon, Mark Ellis and Benjamin Glahn (eds) Islamic Law and International Human Rights Law (Oxford University Press 2012) 265 at 276.

76 Maila Stivens, ‘Gendering Asia after Modernity’ in Helle Rydstrøm (ed) Inequalities in Asia: Configuring, Contesting and Recognizing Women and Men (NIAS Press 2010) 1 at 25.

77 Mohanty, above note 74.

78 Arvonne Fraser describes feminism’s ‘original meaning’ as ‘the theory of and struggle for equality for women’, but the reality is that multiple strands of feminism have informed human rights theories and practices: Fraser, above note 72 at 859.

79 Damien Tissot, ‘Transnational Feminist Solidarities and the Ethics of Translation’ in Olga Castro and Emek Ergun (eds) Feminist Translation Studies (Routledge 2017) 29 at 29–30.

80 See Matilda Arvidsson, ‘Laugh All You Medusas! Hélène Cixous’ Écriture Feminine as Feminist Legal Translation, Transformation, Transgression, and Translactation in the Era of AI and the Anthropocene’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 283.

81 See, for example, Mark Goodale and Sally Engle Merry (eds) The Practice of Human Rights: Tracking Law between the Global and the Local (Cambridge University Press 2007); Marianne Valverde, Chronotopes of Law: Jurisdiction, Scale and Governance (Routledge 2015). See also Stu Marvel, ‘Speculative Egg Freezing and Oocyte Markets: Translating Metaphors of Body and Bank’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 187.

82 Pinar Bilgin, ‘“Contrapuntal Reading” as a Method, an Ethos, and a Metaphor for Global IR’ (2016) 18(1) International Studies Review 134. See also, Edward W Said, Culture and Imperialism (Knopf 1993).

83 Edward W Said, ‘Traveling Theory’ in Moustafa Bayoumi and Andrew Rubin (eds) The Edward Said Reader (Vintage Books 2000) 195 at 197.

84 Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing, ‘Transitions as Translations’ in Joan W Scott, Cora Kaplan and Debra Keates (eds) Transitions, Environments, Translations: Feminisms in International Politics (Routledge 1997) 253 at 253.

85 David Delaney, ‘Beyond the Word: Law as a Thing of This World’ in Jane Holder and Carolyn Harrison (eds) Law and Geography: Current Legal Issues Volume 5 (Oxford University Press 2002) 67; Nicholas K Blomley, ‘The Properties of Space: History, Geography, and Gentrification’ (1997) 18(4) Urban Geography 286; Nicholas K Blomley, Unsettling the City: Urban Land and the Politics of Property (Routledge 2004); Maj Grasten, Leonard Seabrooke and Duncan Wigan, ‘Legal Affordances in Global Wealth Chains: How Platform Firms Use Legal and Spatial Scaling’ (2021) Environment and Planning A: Economy and Space <http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0308518X211057131>.

86 Robert Wai, ‘The Interlegality of Transnational Private Law’ (2008) 71(3) Law and Contemporary Problems 107; Hans Lindahl, Fault Lines of Globalization: Legal Order and the Politics of A-Legality (Oxford University Press 2013); Boaventura de Sousa Santos, ‘Law: A Map of Misreading. Toward a Postmodern Conception of Law’ (1987) 14(3) Journal of Law and Society 279.

87 Miriam Bak-McKenna and Maj Grasten, ‘Legal Borderlands in the Global Economy of Care’ (2022) Transnational Legal Theory <http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/20414005.2022.2081911> at 3 (emphasis in original).

88 Mark Goodale, ‘Legal Ethnography in an Era of Globalization: The Arrival of Western Human Rights Discourse to Rural Bolivia’ in June Starr and Mark Goodale (eds) Practicing Ethnography in Law: New Dialogues, Enduring Methods (Palgrave Macmillan 2002) 50 at 53.

89 See Sara Kolah Ghoutschi, Alina de Luna Aldape and Thorsten Bonacker, ‘Translating Sexuality Education in Ethiopia and Kenya: A Multi-Sited Approach’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 251.

90 Kathy Davis, The Making of Our Bodies, Ourselves: How Feminism Travels across Borders (Duke University Press 2007); Kathy Davis and Mary Evans (eds) Transatlantic Conversations: Feminism as Travelling Theory (Ashgate 2011); Lata Mani, ‘Multiple Mediations: Feminist Scholarship in the Age of Multinational Reception’ (1990) 35 Feminist Review 24; Mary E John, Discrepant Dislocations: Feminism, Theory, and Postcolonial Histories (University of California Press 1996); Zhongli Yu, Translating Feminism in China: Gender, Sexuality and Censorship (Routledge 2015); Min Dongchao, Translation and Travelling Theory: Feminist Theory and Praxis in China (Routledge 2017); Min Dongchao, ‘Toward an Alternative Traveling Theory’ (2014) 39(3) Signs 584.

91 Millie Thayer, Making Transnational Feminism: Rural Women, NGO Activists, and Northern Donors in Brazil (Routledge 2009).

92 Maud Anne Bracke, ‘Our Bodies, Ourselves: The Transnational Connections of 1970s Italian and Roman Feminism’ (2015) 50(3) Journal of Contemporary History 560 at 563.

93 See, for example, Nicole Doerr, ‘Social Movements and Translation’ in Zeynep Gulsah Capan, Filipe dos Reis and Maj Grasten (eds) The Politics of Translation in International Relations (Palgrave 2021) 151; Claudia de Lima Costa, ’Lost (and Found?) in Translation: Feminisms in Hemispheric Dialogue’ (2006) 4(1-2) Latino Studies 62.

94 Thayer, above note 5; Uma Narayan, Dislocating Cultures: Identities, Traditions, and Third World Feminism (Routledge 1997).

95 Maud Anne Bracke and others, ‘Reconsidering Feminism since 1945 through Encounter, Translation, and Resignification: Toward a Historical Narrative’ in Maud Anne Bracke and others (eds) Translating Feminism: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Text, Place and Agency (Palgrave Macmillan 2021) 1 at 17.

96 Kathy Davis, ‘Feminist Body/Politics as World Traveler: Translating Our Bodies, Ourselves’ (2002) 9(3) European Journal of Women’s Studies 223 at 225.

97 Sonia E Alvarez and others (eds) Translocalities/Translocalidades: Feminist Politics of Translation in the Latin/a Américas (Duke University Press 2014).

98 Davis, ‘Feminist Body/Politics as World Traveler: Translating Our Bodies, Ourselves’, above note 96.

99 Gavin Sullivan, ‘Transnational Legal Assemblages and Global Security Law: Topologies and Temporalities of the List’ (2014) 5(1) Transnational Legal Theory 81; Peer Zumbansen, ‘Transnational Law as Socio-Legal Theory and Critique: Prospects for “Law and Society” in a Divided World’ (2019) 67(3) Buffalo Law Review 909.

100 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care: Nursing and Migration in Filipino American History (Duke University Press 2003); Mireille Kingma, Nurses on the Move: Migration and the Global Health Care Economy (Cornell University Press 2006).

101 Bak-McKenna and Grasten, above note 87.

102 Ursula Mense-Petermann, ‘Theorizing Transnational Labour Markets: A Research Heuristic Based on the New Economic Sociology’ (2020) 20(3) Global Networks 410 at 411.

103 Kellynn Wee, Charmian Goh, and Brenda SA Yeoh, ‘Translating People and Policy: The Role of Maid Agents in Brokering between Employers and Migrant Domestic Workers in Singapore’s Migration Industry’ (2020) 54(4) International Migration Review 992.

104 White, above note 20 at xvii (emphasis added).

105 Vázquez, above note 29 at 27.

106 See, for example, Yangsheng Guo, ‘The Politics of Time in Early Chinese Translation of Western Modernity’ (2020) 28(5) Perspectives 674.

107 Türem and Ballestere, above note 22 at 23.

108 Vázquez, above note 29 at 27.

109 See above.

110 Susanne de Lotbinière-Harwood, Re-belle et infidel: La traduction comme pratique de réécriture au féminin/ The Body Bilingual: Translation as a Rewriting in the Feminine (Women’s Press 1991).

111 Callon, above note 60.

112 Anna Lowenhaupt Tsing, Friction: An Ethnography of Global Connection (Princeton University Press 2015). See also Jacques Derrida, ‘Différance’ in Margins of Philosophy, trans. Alan Bass (University of Chicago Press 1982) 3.

113 For example, Reinhart Koselleck traces the conceptual history of ‘revolution’ which ‘can conveniently be defined as a flexible “general concept,” meeting worldwide with a certain initial comprehension, but which in a more precise sense fluctuates enormously from country to country and from one political camp to another’: Reinhart Koselleck, Futures Past: On the Semantics of Historical Time (Columbia University Press (2004) 40 (emphasis added).

114 See Luisa Teresa Hedler Ferreira and Maj Grasten, ‘Law’s Lolita Paradox: Translating “Childhood” in Statutory Rape Jurisprudence’ (2021) 47(2) Australian Feminist Law Journal 229.

115 Sabine Sielke, ‘The Politics of the Strong Trope: Rape and the Feminist Debate in the United States’ (2004) 49(3) Amerikastudien/ American Studies 367; Trine Rogg Korsvik, Politicizing Rape and Pornography: 1970s Feminist Movements in France and Norway (Palgrave Macmillan 2021).

116 Estelle B Freedman, Redefining Rape: Sexual Violence in the Era of Suffrage and Segregation (Harvard University Press 2013) 4.

117 As above.

118 See Susan Ehrlich, Diana Eades and Janet Ainsworth (eds) Discursive Constructions of Consent in the Legal Process (Oxford University Press 2016); Susan Ehrlich, Representing Rape: Language and Sexual Consent (Routledge 2001).

119 Freedman, as above at 4.

120 As above.

121 See Jill Elaine Hasday, ‘Contest and Consent: A Legal History of Marital Rape’ (2000) 88(5) California Law Review 1373; Melanie Randall and Vasanthi Venkatesh, ‘Criminalizing Sexual Violence against Women in Intimate Relationships: State Obligations under Human Rights Law’ (2015) 109 AJIL Unbound 189.

122 Scott A Anderson, ‘Conceptualizing Rape as Coerced Sex’ (2016) 127 Ethics 50.