Brain injury and prison: over-representation, prevention and reform

ABSTRACT

People who have suffered a brain injury are significantly over-represented in prisons around the world. Compared to the general population, people in prison are more than five times as likely to have had a brain injury. Brain injuries may have multiple ongoing symptoms which lead to the commission of criminal offences and to inadequate presentation of defences. Police, lawyers, judges and prison staff are largely unaware of an inmate’s brain injury status. The silence of this unrecognised epidemic frequently leads to insufficient treatment and unnecessary and inappropriate disciplinary action. From the perspective of having had a severe traumatic brain injury, I recommend more systematic inmate screening and revision of the training given to police, lawyers, judges and prison staff. People who deal with prisoners should be trained in how to identify and manage the deficits caused by brain injury. Human rights litigation may also be a tool to meet the needs of brain injured inmates. People with brain injuries should not be punished and forgotten.

KEYWORDS:

• Acquired brain injury (ABI)
• traumatic brain injury (TBI)
• prisoner
• healthcare in prison
• prisoner rights
• prison staff training

Acknowledgments

I would like to acknowledge Nick Rushworth and Brain Injury Australia for their work to raise public consciousness of brain injury and its effects, to facilitate recovery, and to make resources more available to people who have suffered a brain injury.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Molly O’Brien, Nobody Home: My Brain Injury and Recovery from Pavement to Podium (Stringybark Publishing 2021).

2 Nick Rushworth ‘Out of Sight, Out of Mind: People with an Acquired Brain Injury and the Criminal Justice System’ (2011) Brain Injury Australia policy paper, 4.

3 Ibid. ABI and TBI are sometimes used interchangeably (Rushworth (n 2) 4). This paper is primarily concerned with TBI and will use the acronym ABI only occasionally.

4 Ian McIntosh and Sharon Wright, ‘Exploring What the Notion of “Lived Experience” Offers for Social Policy Analysis’ (2019) 48(3) Journal of Social Policy 449–67 <https://do.org/10.1017/S0047279418000570> accessed 16 June 2022.

5 Rob Roggema, ‘The Design Charrette’ in Rob Roggema (ed), The Design Charrette: Ways to Envision Sustainable Futures (Dordrecht, Springer 2014) 15–34; Emma Blomkamp, ‘The Promise of Co-Design for Public Policy’ (2018) 77(4) Australian Journal of Public Administration 729–43 <https://do.org/10.1111/1467-8500.12310> accessed 16 June 2022.

6 Caroline Doyle, Karen Gardner and Karen Wells, ‘The Importance of Incorporating Lived Experience in Efforts to Reduce Australian Reincarceration Rates’ (2021) 10(2) International Journal for Crime, Justice and Social Democracy 83–98 <https://www.crimejusticejournal.com/article/view/1942> accessed 16 June 2022.

7 Ibid 3.

8 J M Silver and others, ‘The Association Between Head Injuries and Psychiatric Disorders: Findings from New Haven NIMH Epidemiologic Catchment Area Study’ (2001) 15(11) Brain Injury <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11689092> accessed 16 June 2022.

9 Michael C Dewan and others, ‘Estimating the Global Incidence of Traumatic Brain Injury’ (2001) 130(4) Journal of Neurosurgery 1081 <https://do.org/10.3171/2017.10.JNS17352> accessed 16 June 2022.

10 Ibid 1088.

11 Ibid 1087–88.

12 Andrew I R Maas and others, ‘Traumatic Brain Injury–Integrated Approaches to Improving Clinical Care and Research’ (2017) 16(12) The Launcet Neurology <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29122524/> accessed 16 June 2022.

13 Gaye Lansdell and others, ‘I Am Not Drunk, I Have An ABI: Findings From a Qualitative Study into Systematic Challenges in Responding to People with Acquired Brain Injuries in the Justice System’ (2018) 25(5) Psychiatry, Psychology and Law 746 <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13218719.2018.1474818?journalCode=tppl2> accessed 16 June 2022.

14 Peter W Schofield and others, ‘Traumatic Brain Injury Among Australian Prisoners: Rates, Recurrence and Sequelae’ (2006) 20(5) Brain Injury 1417 <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16716996/> accessed 16 June 2022.

15 Lansdell (n 13) 747.

16 Jeffrey Rao and C Lyketsos, ‘Neuropsychiatric Sequelae of Traumatic Brain Injury’ (2000) 41(2) Psychosomatics <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10749946/> accessed 16 June 2022 103; Schofield (n 14) 504–505.

17 Rao and Lyketsos (n 16) 95–103.

18 Rushworth (n 2) 9.

19 O’Brien (n 1).

20 A Arnould and others, ‘Neurobehavioral and Self-Awareness Changes After Traumatic Brain Injury’ (2016) 59(1) Annals of Physical and Rehabilitation Medicine 19–20 <https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1877065715005345?via%3Dihub> accessed 16 June 2022.

21 Schofield (n 14) 503; Lansdell (n 13) 744–47.

22 ‘Banged up: Brain injuries are startlingly common among those who have committed crimes, preventing them could lower crime rates’ The Economist (International, 27 March 2021) <https://www.economist.com/international/2021/03/27/brain-injuries-are-startlingly-common-among-those-who-have-committed-crimes> accessed 16 June 2022.

23 Ibid.

24 Eric J Shiroma, Pamela L Ferguson and Elisabeth Da, ‘Prevalence of Traumatic Brain Injury in an Offender Population: A Meta-Analysis’ (2012) 27(3) The Journal of Head Trauma Rehabilitation 149, 155 <https://journals.lww.com/headtraumarehab/Fulltext/2012/05000/Prevalence_of_Traumatic_Brain_Injury_in_an.11.aspx> accessed 16 June 2022.

25 Ray Bradley and Nicholas J Richardson, ‘Traumatic Brain Injury and Recidivism Among Returning Inmates’ (2017) 44(3) Criminal Justice and Behaviour 477 <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0093854816686631> accessed16 June 2022.

26 Ugur Nedim, ‘Can I go to prison for not paying a fine?’ (27 November 2014) Downing Centre Court, a website by Sydney Criminal Lawyers <https://downingcentrecourt.com.au/blog/can-i-go-to-prison-for-not-paying-a-fine/> accessed 16 June 2022.

27 Peter Brewer, ‘Independent report finds cellmate bashing at Canberra jail led to brain injury’ The Canberra Times (Canberra, 1 August 2019) <https://www.canberratimes.com.au/story/6303399/cellmate-bashing-leads-to-brain-injury/> accessed 16 June 2022.

28 Michael Inman and Kate Midena, ‘Canberra prisoner stabbed in head, neck and body spotted in hospital by family’ ABC News (Canberra, 17 January 2020) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-01-17/act-prsoner-stabbed-david-laipato-family-hospital/11875652> accessed 16 June 2022.

29 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, ‘The Health of Australia's Prisoners’ (2018) Research Paper, 107 <https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/2e92f007-453d-48a1-9c6b-4c9531cf0371/aihw-phe-246.pdf.aspx?inline=true> accessed 9 September 2021.

30 O’Brien (n 1) 115–16.

31 Brian Ramanauskas, ‘The Relationship Between Traumatic Brain Injuries, Impulsivity, and Crime’ (2020) 18(5) City University of New York Academic Works 3 <https://academicworks.cuny.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1152&context=jj_etds> accessed 16 June 2022.

32 W Huw Williams and others, ‘Traumatic Brain Injury: A Potential Cause of Violent Crime?’ (2018) 5(10) The lancet Psychiatry 837 <https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lanpsy/article/PIIS2215-0366(18)30062-2/fulltext> accessed 16 June 2022.

33 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, ‘The Health of Australia's Prisoners’ (2015) Research Paper, 107, 112 <https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/9c42d6f3-2631-4452-b0df-9067fd71e33a/aihw-phe-207.pdf.aspx?inline=true> accessed 16 June 2022.

34 Peter W Schofield and others, ‘Neurospychiatric Correlates of Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) Among Australian Prison Entrants’ (2006) 20(13) Brain Injuiry 4117 <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17378233/> accessed 16 June 2022.

35 Shiroma (n 24) 148.

36 Ibid 2010.

37 Chris Cunneen and others, Penal Culture and Hyperincarceration: The Revival of Prison (1st ed, Ashgate Publishing 2013) 101.

38 Anita Mackay, Towards Human Rights Compliance in Australian Prison (1st ed, ANU Press 2020) 19.

39 Ibid 24–25.

40 Ibid 25–26.

41 New York State, ‘Traumatic Brain Injury: Who is at Risk?’ (Department of Health, June 2018) <https://www.health.ny.gov/prevention/injury_prevention/traumatic_brain_injury/risk.htm> accessed 16 June 2022.

42 Rushworth (n 2) 15.

43 Ibid 16.

44 Terrie E Moffitt, ‘Life-Course-Persistent Versus Adolescence-Limited Antisocial Behavior’ in Dante Cicchetti and Donald J Cohen (eds), Developmental Psychopathology: Volume Three: Risk, Disorder and Adaptation) (John Wiley & Sons 2015).

45 Brain Injury Australia, ‘Concussion in Sport’ (Brain Injury Australia, 2018) <https://www.braininjuryaustralia.org.au/education-campaigns/concussion-in-sport/> accessed 28 September 2021.

46 Gabriela Illie and others, ‘Cross-Sectional Examination of the Association of Co-Occurring Alcohol Misuse and Traumatic Brain Injury on Mental Health and Conduct Problems in Adolescents in Ontario, Canada’ 2016 6(11) BMJ Open 13 <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28186929/> accessed 16 June 2022.

47 Maas (n 12).

48 Martin Jackson and others, ‘Acquired Brain Injury in the Victorian Prison System’ (2011) Department of Justice Melbourne Corrections Research Paper No. 4, April 2011, 7 <https://files.corrections.vic.gov.au/2021-06/acquired_brain_injury_in_the_victorian_prison_system.pdf> accessed 16 June 2022.

49 Brain Injury Australia, ‘The Prevalence of Acquired Brain Injury Among Victims and Perpetrators of Family Violence’ (2018) Research Paper <https://www.braininjuryaustralia.org.au/download-bias-report-on-australias-first-research-into-family-violence-and-brain-injury/> accessed 16 June 2022.

50 Jackson (n 48) 29.

51 Betony Clasby and others, ‘The Consequences of Traumatic Brain Injury From the Classroom to the Courtroom: Understanding Pathways Through Structural Equation Modelling (2020) 42(17) Disability and Rehabilitation <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31282232/>.

52 Rushworth (n 2) 28.

53 Shiroma (n 24) 156; Lansdell (n 13) 741; Schofield (n 34) 1409.

54 Alice Theadom and others, ‘The Brain Injury Screening Tool (BIST): Tool Developmnet, Factor Structure and Validity’ (2021) 16(2) Plos One 1 <https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33539482/> accessed 16 June 2022.

55 Victorian Ombudsman, ‘Investigation into the Rehabilitation and Reintegration of Prisoners in Victoria’ (2015) Victorian Ombudsman Research Paper 91 <https://assets.ombudsman.vic.gov.au/assets/Reports/Parliamentary-Reports/1-PDF-Report-Files/Investigation-into-the-rehabilitation-and-reintegration-of-prisoners-in-Victoria.pdf> accessed 16 June 2022.

56 Jackson (n 48) 24.

57 Ibid 24.

58 Victorian Ombudsman (n 55) 91.

59 Ibid 91.

60 Ibid.

61 Rao and Lyketsos (n 16) 97.

62 New Zealand Corrections, ‘Practice Note: Identifying and Managing the Effects of Traumatic Brain Injury’ (2018) 6(1) Practice: The New Zealand Corrections Journal <https://www.corrections.govt.nz/resources/research/journal/volume_6_issue_1_july_2018/practice_note_identifying_and_managing_the_effects_of_traumatic_brain_injury> accessed 16 June 2022.

63 O’Brien (n 1) 100–103.

64 Cunneen (n 37) 92; Mackay (n 38) 309.

65 ACT Government, ‘Health Care’ (Corrective Services, 10 August 2021) <https://correctiveservices.act.gov.au/custody/health-care> accessed 10 August 2021.

66 New Zealand Corrections (n 61).

67 Jackson (n 48) 33.

68 Theadom (n 54); Deborah Fortescue, ‘Is Offending Behaviour Linked to Brain Injury’ (Barrow Cadbury Trust, 19 February 2014) <https://barrowcadbury.org.uk/voices/is-offending-behaviour-linked-to-brain-injury/> accessed 16 June 2022; Robert F Morrell, ‘Traumatic Brain Injury in Prisoners’ (1998) 27(3) Journal of Offender Rehabilitation <https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1300/J076v27n03_01 accessed 16 June 2022.

69 Theadom (n 54) 9.

70 Schofield (n 34) 1417.

71 Ibid 12.

72 Victorian Ombudsman (n 55) 89.

73 Lansdell (n 13) 741.

74 IDRS, ‘Making Rights Real’ <Welcome to IDRS - IDRS.au> accessed 16 June 2022.

75 Lansdell (n 13) 754.

76 Ibid 748.

77 Thomas F Denson, ‘Breaking the Cycle of Violent Crime and Punishment: The Promise of Neuronormalization’ (2021) 15(4) Social Issues and Policy Review 239 <Breaking the Cycle of Violent Crime and Punishment: The Promise of Neuronormalization. Request PDF (researchgate.net)> accessed 16 June 2022.

78 Ibid 240.

79 Jackson (n 48) 3.

80 Rushworth (n 2) 14.

81 Cunneen (n 37) 98.

82 Shiroma (n 24) 148.

83 Ray and Richardson (n 25) 473.

84 Schofield (n 34) 4109.

85 O’Brien (n 1) 99.

86 Mackay (n 38), 271.

87 Cunneen (n 37) 92; Mackay (n 38), 309.

88 Jackson (n 48) 32–33.

89 Rich v Secretary, Department of Justice [2010] VSC 390, [45].

90 Bronwyn Naylor, ‘Protecting the Human Rights of Prisoners in Australia’ in Paula Gerber and Melissa Castan (eds), Critical Perspectives on Human Rights Law in Australia (Lawbook, 2021) 436.

91 Castles v Secretary to the Department of Justice & Ors (2010) 28 VR 141, 168.

92 Dietrich v The Queen (1992) 177 CLR 292; Minogue v Williams [2000] FCA125.

93 UN Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner, ‘Annual Report 2021: Global upheaval deepened inequalities’14 June 2022 <https://www.ohchr.org/en/stories/2022/06/annual-report-2021-global-upheaval-deepened-inequalities> accessed 17 June 2022.

94 Naylor (n 90) 439.

95 Mackay (n 38) 73.

96 Ibid 77.

97 Mackay (n 38) 134.

98 Castles v Secretary of Department of Justice (2010) 28 VR 141, [108].

99 Julie Debeljak, ‘The Rights Of Prisoners Under the Victorian Charter: A Critical Analysis of the Jurisprudence on the Treatment of Prisoners and Conditions of Detention’ (2015) 38(4) UNSW Law Journal 1381.

100 Mackay (n 38) 193.

101 Ibid.

102 Standard Guidelines For Corrections In Australia, Australia 2012, ‘Standard Guidelines for Prisons’ 2.22–2.25 <https://justice.nt.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0009/238185/aust-stand_2012.pdf> accessed 17 June 2022; Mackay (n 38) 58; Naylor (n 90).

103 Rushworth (n 2).

104 Ibid 6.

105 Fortescue (n 68) 84.

106 Ibid.

107 The Disability Trust <https://www.disabilitytrust.org.au/services-and-support/acquired-brain-injury> accessed 17 June 2022.

108 Mackay (n 38) 266.

109 Lorana Bartels and Jeremy Boland, ‘Human Rights and Prison: A Case Study from the Australian Capital Territory’ in Leanne Weber, Elaine Fishwick and Marinella Marmo (eds), The Routledge International Handbook of Criminology and Human Rights (1st ed, Routledge, 2016).

110 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, The Health of Australia’s Prisoners 2018, 106 <https://www.aihw.gov.au/getmedia/2e92f007-453d-48a1-9c6b-4c9531cf0371/aihw-phe-246.pdf.aspx?inline=true> accessed 17 June 2022.

111 Rushworth (n 2) 6; Silver (n 8) 942.

112 ACT Government (n 65).

113 Victorian Ombudsman (n 55) 110.

114 Ibid 93.

115 Jackson (n 48) 33.

116 Denson (n 77) 240.

117 Ibid 240.

118 Ibid 244.

119 Ibid 257.

120 Ibid 260–63.

121 Ibid.

122 Rao and Lyketsos (n 16) 98.

123 Ibid 100.

124 Ibid 101.

125 Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (1955) (approved by the Economic and Social Council, Resolution 663).

126 Brewer (n 27).

127 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (n 33) 108.

128 Australian Human Rights Commission, Prisoners and Human Rights <https://humanrights.gov.au/our-work/rights-and-freedoms/projects/prisoners-rights> accessed 17 June 2022.

Additional information

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Molly Townes O’Brien

Molly Townes O’Brien is an Honorary Associate Professor at the ANU College of Law. Molly has served on the law faculties of Emory University, University of Akron and University of Wollongong. Prior to entering the academy, she worked as a judicial clerk in the United States District Court and the Georgia Supreme Court before practicing law in Pennsylvania as a civil litigator and then as an Assistant Public Defender. She has written on race politics, criminal law, trial advocacy and student wellbeing. She has two sons and is married to Dr Charley Lineweaver.