A proportionate response is the maximal one? Economic and social rights during the pandemic

ABSTRACT

This paper analyses how responses to the COVID-19 pandemic have interacted with economic and social rights during the first two years of the pandemic (in 2020 and in 2021) in the Australian state of Victoria. The pandemic has naturally focused attention on health, resulting in much government action to protect public health by preventing COVID-19 infections. However, Victoria’s multiple lockdowns have also imposed heavy socio-economic burdens, which have been unevenly spread, exacerbating the vulnerable positions of already marginalised groups and individuals. In addition, in contrast to what was hoped for by some commentators, the crisis has failed to bring about fundamental change in economic and social policies undermining the enjoyment of economic and social rights. The reasons behind these outcomes can be located, most obviously, in the blunt approach chosen early on that characterised the pandemic response throughout. However, they also resulted from limited consideration of the demands of economic and social rights, including their inherent tensions and inter-relationships, and from lack of attention to existing inequalities.

KEYWORDS:

• Economic and social rights
• ICESCR
• COVID-19
• Victoria
• Australia

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Sarah Joseph, ‘International Human Rights Law and the Response to the COVID-19 Pandemic’ (2020) 11 Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies 249; Audrey Lebret, ‘COVID-19 Pandemic and Derogation to Human Rights’ (2020) 7 Journal of Law and the Biosciences; Kaisa-Maria Kimmel, ‘Right to Life and Right to Health in Priority Setting in the COVID-19 Prevention Strategies in Finland, Norway and Sweden’ in Stefan Kirchner (ed), Governing the Crisis: Law, Human Rights and COVID-19 (Lit Verlag 2021).

2 Eda Seyhan, ‘Pandemic Powers: Why Human Rights Organizations Should Not Lose Focus on Civil and Political Rights’ (2020) 12 Journal of Human Rights Practice 268; Eric Richardson and Colleen Devine, ‘Emergencies End Eventually: How to Better Analyze Human Rights Restrictions Sparked by the COVID-19 Pandemic Under the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights’ (2021) 42 Michigan Journal of International Law 105.

3 Katharina Ó Cathaoir, ‘Human Rights in Times of Pandemics: Necessity and Proportionality’ in Morten Kjaerum, Martha F Davis and Amanda Lyons (eds), COVID-19 and Human Rights (Routledge 2021); Fiona McGaughey, Mary Anne Kenny, Amy Maguire and Susan Harris-Rimmer, ‘International Human Rights Law — Lessons in the Era of COVID-19’ (2022) 22(2) Australian Journal of Human Rights. doi:10.1080/1323238X.2021.1995123.

4 For an important exception, see Octávio Luiz Motta Ferraz, ‘Covid-19 and Inequality: The Importance of Social Rights’ (2021) 32 King’s Law Journal 109.

5 McGaughey and others (n 3).

6 Judd Boaz, ‘Melbourne Passes Buenos Aires’ World Record for Time Spent in COVID-19 Lockdown’ ABC News (3 October 2021) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-10-03/melbourne-longest-lockdown/100510710> accessed 16 March 2022.

7 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (adopted 16 December 1966, opened for signature 19 December 1966, entered into force 3 January 1976) 993 UNTS 3.

8 EW Vierdag, ‘The Legal Nature of the Rights Granted by the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ (1978) 9 Netherlands Yearbook of International Law 69.

9 For an overview, Ben Saul, David Kinley and Jacqueline Mowbray, The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights: Commentary, Cases and Materials (Oxford University Press 2014); on minimum core content, see UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (CESCR), ‘General Comment No. 3: The Nature of States Parties Obligations (Art. 2, par. 1)’ E/1991/23 (14 December 1990); on the three types of obligations, see ‘The Maastricht Guidelines on Violations of Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights’ (1998) 20 Human Rights Quarterly 691.

10 Amrei Müller, ‘Limitations to and Derogations from Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ (2009) 9 Human Rights Law Review 557, 579.

11 Wendy Brown, ‘American Nightmare: Neoliberalism, Neoconservatism, and De-Democratization’ (2006) 34 Political Theory 690.

12 Samuel Moyn, ‘A Powerless Companion: Human Rights in the Age of Neoliberalism’ (2014) 77 Law and Contemporary Problems 147; Samuel Moyn, Not Enough: Human Rights in an Unequal World (Harvard University Press 2018); Jessica Whyte, The Morals of the Market: Human Rights and the Rise of Neoliberalism (Verso 2019).

13 John Tasioulas, ‘Saving Human Rights from Human Rights Law’ (2019) 52 Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 1167; Hurst Hannum, Rescuing Human Rights: A Radically Moderate Approach (Cambridge University Press 2019).

14 David McGrogan, Critical Theory and Human Rights (Manchester University Press 2021), 163.

15 McGrogan (n 14). See also David Kennedy, ‘The International Human Rights Movement: Part of the Problem?’ (2001) 3 European Human Rights Law Review 245; Martti Koskenniemi, ‘Human Rights Mainstreaming as a Strategy for Institutional Power’ (2010) 1 Humanity 47.

16 Paul O’Connell, ‘On the Human Rights Question’ (2018) 40 Human Rights Quarterly 962, 982; Makau Mutua, Human Rights Standards: Hegemony, Law, and Politics (State University of New York Press 2016).

17 Katharine G Young, ‘The Idea of a Human Rights-Based Economic Recovery After COVID-19’ (2020) 6 International Journal of Public Law and Policy 390.

18 Lee Jones, ‘Coronavirus is the End of the End of History’ Tribune (25 March 2020) <https://tribunemag.co.uk/2020/03/coronavirus-is-the-end-of-the-end-of-history> accessed 16 March 2022. See also Gerard Delanty, ‘Introduction: The Pandemic in Historical and Global Context’ in Gerard Delanty (ed), Pandemics, Politics, and Society (de Gruyter 2021).

19 Steve Matthewman and Kate Huppatz, ‘A Sociology of Covid-19’ (2020) 56 Journal of Sociology 675; Adam Tooze, Shutdown: How Covid Shook the World Economy (Allen Lane 2020).

20 Michael Berry, ‘The Strange Death of Neoliberalism’ (2020) 85 Journal of Australian Political Economy 44.

21 David Primrose, Robin Chang and Rodney Loeppky, ‘Pandemic Unplugged: COVID-19, Public Health and the Persistence of Neoliberalism’ (2020) 85 Journal of Australian Political Economy 17.

22 Clare Bambra, Julia Lynch and Katherine E Smith, The Unequal Pandemic: COVID-19 and Health Inequalities (Bristol University Press/Policy Press 2021).

23 Grainne De Búrca, Reframing Human Rights in a Turbulent Era (Oxford University Press 2021) 198.

24 Australia ratified the ICESCR in 1975: <https://tbinternet.ohchr.org/_layouts/15/treatybodyexternal/treaty.aspx?treaty=cescr&lang=en> accessed 3 August 2022.

25 Sally Engle Merry, Human Rights & Gender Violence: Translating International Law into Local Justice (University of Chicago Press 2006).

26 Andrew Byrnes, ‘Economic and Social Rights in the Australian Parliamentary Human Rights Scrutiny Process’ in Julie Debeljak and Laura Grenfell (eds), Law Making and Human Rights: Executive and Parliamentary Scrutiny across Australian Jurisdictions (Thomson Lawbook 2020).

27 National Human Rights Consultation Committee, National Human Rights Consultation Report (Commonwealth of Australia 2009).

28 Andrew Byrnes, ‘The Protection and Enjoyment of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ in Melissa Castan and Paula Gerber (eds) Critical Perspectives on Human Rights Law in Australia (Vol 1, Thomson Lawbook 2021).

29 Peter Davidson, Bruce Bradbury, Melissa Wong and Trish Hill, Inequality in Australia 2020 (Australian Council of Social Services and UNSW Sydney 2020) <http://povertyandinequality.acoss.org.au/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Inequality-in-Australia-2020-Part-1_FINAL.pdf> accessed 4 August 2022.

30 Russell Solomon, Australia’s Engagement with Economic and Social Rights. A Case of Institutional Avoidance (Palgrave Macmillan 2021), 282.

31 Byrnes (n 28) 137.

32 Solomon (n 30) 25.

33 Rob Manwaring and Geoffrey Robinson, ‘What is “Labor” About Labor State Governments in Australia?’ (2020) 66 Australian Journal of Politics and History 3.

34 Charter of Human Rights and Responsibilities Act 2006 (Vic) (Victorian Charter).

35 WHO, ‘WHO Director-General’s Opening Remarks at the Media Briefing on COVID-19 – 11 March 2020’ <https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020> accessed 16 March 2022.

36 These measures were underpinned the closure of international borders (using Commonwealth powers under the Biosecurity Act 2015 (Cth) and hotel quarantine (administered by the states)). About the human rights issues, Regina Jefferies, Jane McAdam and Sangeetha Pillai, ‘Can We Still Call Australia Home? The Right to Return and the Legality of Australia’s COVID-19 Travel Restrictions’ (2021) 27(2) Australian Journal of Human Rights. doi:10.1080/1323238X.2021.1996529.

37 Premier of Victoria, ‘State of Emergency Declared in Victoria ever COVID-19’ (16 March 2020) <https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/state-emergency-declared-victoria-over-covid-19> accessed 16 March 2022. Under emergency powers, the Chief Health Officer (CHO) is given wide-ranging powers to implement restrictions to prevent a serious risk to public health: Parliament of Victoria, ‘Emergency Powers, Public Health and COVID-19’ <https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/publications/research-papers/download/36-research-papers/13962-emergency-powers-public-health-and-covid-19> accessed 4 August 2022. By October 2021, the emergency had been extended 22 times: Report to Parliament on the Extension of the Declaration of a State of Emergency 21 October 2021 with attachments <https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/file_uploads/Report_to_Parliament_on_the_Extension_of_the_Declaration_of_a_State_of_Emergency_3_June_2021_tMvCnYGf.pdf> accessed 4 August 2022. The health advice was not made publicly available.

38 See Parliament of Victoria (n 37).

39 Department of Health and Human Services, Essential Workers and Essential Providers List <https://www.dhhs.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/202102/Essential%20Workers%20and%20Essential%20Providers%20List_2.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022.

40 ‘Victoria Records Zero New Cases of Coronavirus and No Deaths’ ABC News (26 October 2020) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-10-27/victoria-records-zero-coronavirus-cases/12816406> accessed 16 March 2022.

41 Richard Willingham, ‘Melbourne Lockdown to Continue until Vaccination Targets Reached as Victoria Abandons COVID-Zero Goal’ ABC News (1 September 2021) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-01/victoria-covid-cases-lockdown-melbourne-restrictions/100423686> accessed 16 March 2022.

42 Victorian Ombudsman, Investigation into Decision-making under the Victorian Border Crossing Permit Directions (December 2021) <https://www.ombudsman.vic.gov.au/our-impact/investigation-reports/investigation-into-decision-making-under-the-victorian-border-crossing-permit-directions/> accessed 16 March 2022.

43 See eg COVID-19 Mandatory Vaccination Directions (No 2) <https://www.dhhs.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/202109/COVID-19%20Mandatory%20Vaccination%20Directions%20%28No%202%29.pdf>; COVID-19 Mandatory Vaccination Directions (No 5) <https://www.dhhs.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/202110/COVID-19%20Mandatory%20Vaccination%20Directions%20%28No%205%29.pdf>; COVID-19 Mandatory Vaccination (Workers) Directions <https://www.dhhs.vic.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/202110/covid-19-mandatory-vaccination-%28workers%29-directions.pdf>, all accessed 4 August 2022.

44 ‘Melbourne Police Fire Pepper Balls, Pellets to Break Up COVID-19 Protest’ Reuters (21 September 2021) <https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/melbourne-construction-sites-shut-down-after-anti-vaccine-mandate-protest-2021-09-20/>; Tiffanie Turnbull and Emily Woods, ‘Arrests Made at Protesters Take to Melbourne Streets Over Mandatory COVID-19 Vaccination Requirements’ 7 News (2 October 2021) <https://7news.com.au/news/vic/arrests-made-at-protesters-take-to-melbourne-streets-over-mandatory-covid-19-vaccination-requirements-c-4129823> accessed 4 August 2022.

45 Joseph (n 1).

46 Lisa Cox, ‘“Like Preparing for War”: Australia’s Hospitals Brace for Coronavirus Peak’ The Guardian (4 April 2020) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/apr/05/like-preparing-for-war-australias-hospitals-brace-for-coronavirus-peak> accessed 16 March 2022; Joseph Dunstan. ‘How Many COVID Cases can Victoria Handle before its Hospitals’ ICU Capacity is Overrun?’ ABC News (1 September 2021) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-09-02/victoria-hospital-covid-case-capacity-icu-beds/100420728> accessed 16 March 2022.

47 CESCR, ‘Statement on the Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic and Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ E/C.12/2020/1 (6 April 2020) para 4.

48 Kimmel (n 1) 27.

49 Ferraz (n 4).

50 See e.g. Saul, Kinley and Mowbray (n 9). The CESCR, it its latest Concluding Observations on Australia offered no analysis of this aspect: CESCR, Concluding Observations on the Fifth Periodic Report of Australia, E/C.12/AUS/CO/5 (11 July 2017).

51 Annika Smethurst, ‘COVID Backflip Won’t Hurt Andrews, but Hospital Woes Open New Wound’ The Age (22 October 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/politics/victoria/covid-backflip-won-t-hurt-andrews-but-hospital-woes-open-new-wound-20211021-p5921b.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

52 Premier of Victoria, ‘Huge Expansion of Our Health System to Fight Coronavirus’ (1 April 2020) <https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/huge-expansion-our-health-system-fight-coronavirus> accessed 16 March 2022.

53 Premier of Victoria, ‘Building a Better Health System’ (24 November 2020) <https://www.premier.vic.gov.au/building-better-health-system> accessed 16 March 2022.

54 Aisha Dow, Paul Sakkal and Melissa Cunningham, ‘Feared Case Surge in Victorian Hospitals Would Demand ICU Overhaul’ The Age (21 September 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/feared-case-surge-in-victorian-hospitals-would-demand-icu-overhaul-20210920-p58t8n.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

55 Edward Litton and others, ‘Increasing ICU Capacity to Accommodate Higher Demand during the COVID-19 Pandemic’ (2021) 215 Medical Journal of Australia <https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.5694/mja2.51318> accessed 16 March 2022.

56 CESCR, ‘Statement on the Coronavirus’ (n 47) para 11.

57 Michael McGowan, ‘Daniel Andrews Dismisses Human Rights Complaint over Melbourne Covid Curfew’ The Guardian (11 September 2020) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/sep/11/daniel-andrews-dismisses-human-rights-complaint-over-melbourne-covid-curfew> accessed 16 March 2022.

58 John Tobin, ‘COVID-19 and Curfews’ Pursuit (University of Melbourne) (25 September 2020) <https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/covid-19-and-curfews> accessed 16 March 2022.

59 Victorian Charter (n 34).

60 McGaughey and others (n 3) 12–13.

61 Müller (n 10) 573, 579.

62 CESCR, ‘General Comment 14: The Right to the Highest Attainable Standard of Health (Art. 12)’ E/C.12/2000/4 (11 August 2000) para 28.

63 On this aspect, see Jefferies, McAdam and Pillai (n 36).

64 For a discussion of relevant obligations, see McGaughey and others (n 3).

65 Gerard Quinn, ‘Covid-19 and Disability: A War of Two Paradigms’ in Morten Kjaerum, Martha F Davis and Amanda Lyons (eds), COVID-19 and Human Rights (Routledge 2021).

66 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare (AIHW), The First Year of COVID-19 in Australia: Direct and Indirect Health Effects (AIHW 2021).

67 Lyn Gilbert and Alan Lilly, ‘Coronavirus (COVID-19) — Independent Review of COVID-19 Outbreaks at St Basil’s and Epping Gardens Aged Care Facilities’ (30 November 2020) <https://www.health.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/2020/12/coronavirus-covid-19-independent-review-of-covid-19-outbreaks-at-st-basil-s-and-epping-gardens-aged-care-facilities.pdf> accessed 16 March 2022.

68 Royal Commission into Aged Care Quality and Safety, ‘Aged Care and COVID-19: A Special Report’ (1 October 2020) <https://agedcare.royalcommission.gov.au/publications/aged-care-and-covid-19-special-report> accessed 16 March 2022.

69 AIHW (n 66).

70 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘COVID-19 Mortality in Australia’ (15 February 2022) <https://www.abs.gov.au/articles/covid-19-mortality-australia#deaths-due-to-covid-19-socio-economic-status-seifa-> accessed 16 March 2022.

71 Martha F Davis, ‘The Human (Rights) Costs of Inequality: Snapshots from a Pandemic’ in Morten Kjaerum, Martha F Davis and Amanda Lyons (eds), COVID-19 and Human Rights (Routledge 2021).

72 Bambra, Lynch and Smith (n 22) chapter 2.

73 Michael Fowler and Richard Baker, ‘Cedar Meats Outbreak Reaches 75 as Authorities Investigate Animal Cruelty’ The Age (10 May 2020) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/cedar-meats-outbreak-reaches-75-as-authorities-investigate-animal-cruelty-20200509-p54rer.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

74 Osman Faruqi, ‘Where Victoria’s Second-wave Cases are Still Occurring’ The Saturday Paper (17 October 2020) <https://www.thesaturdaypaper.com.au/news/health/2020/10/17/where-victorias-second-wave-cases-are-still-occurring/160285320010571#hrd> accessed 16 March 2022.

75 Heli Askola, Helen Forbes-Mewett and Olha Shmihelska, Migrant Precariousness in the Time of COVID-19: Migrant Workers, Risks and Rights (Castan Centre for Human Rights Law 2021).

76 Simone Fox Koob and Timna Jacks, ‘Almost 40 Prisoners Infected as COVID-19 Spreads to Five Victorian Jails’ The Age (5 October 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/more-than-30-prisoners-infected-as-covid-19-spreads-to-five-victorian-jails-20211005-p58xf7.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

77 Ferraz (n 4) 112.

78 CESCR, ‘General Comment 14’ (n 62) 5, 11, 16.

79 CESCR, ‘Statement on the Coronavirus’ (n 47) 5.

80 Calla Wahlquist, ‘Four out of Five Health and Aged Care Workers in Victoria with Covid-19 Contracted it at Work’ The Guardian (25 August 2020) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/aug/25/four-out-of-five-health-and-aged-care-workers-in-victoria-with-covid-19-contracted-it-at-work> accessed 16 March 2022.

81 Ben Butler and Josh Taylor, ‘Calls for Paid Pandemic Leave Grow as Victorian Premier Links Covid-19 Surge to Insecure Work’ The Guardian (23 July 2020) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2020/jul/23/calls-for-paid-pandemic-leave-grow-as-victorian-premier-links-covid-19-surge-to-insecure-work> accessed 16 March 2022.

82 Department of Health and Human Services, ‘Supporting Victorian Workers to get Tested and Stay Home’ (23 July 2020) <https://www.dhhs.vic.gov.au/updates/coronavirus-covid-19/supporting-victorian-workers-get-tested-and-stay-home> accessed 16 March 2022. Many initially state-based support measures were later extended federally, see Michael Klapdor and Anthony Lotric, ‘Australian Government COVID-19 Disaster Payments: a Quick Guide’ (21 January 2022) <https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2122/Quick_Guides/COVID-19DisasterPayments> accessed 16 March 2022.

83 But the Government announced plans for a two-year trial to provide casual and insecure workers in ‘priority’ industries (including aged care) paid sick leave and carer’s pay: ‘Victoria Announces Trial Program Offering Sick and Carer’s Leave to Casual or Insecure Workers’ ABC News (23 November 2020) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2020-11-23/victorian-pilot-to-provide-sick-carers-leave-for-casual-workers/12910374> accessed 16 March 2022.

84 CESCR, ‘Statement on the Coronavirus’ (n 47) 11.

85 Margaret Paul, ‘Victoria’s Elective Surgery Waiting Lists are Long and Getting Longer. Here’s Why’ ABC News (15 November 2019) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-11-16/why-are-waiting-lists-for-elective-surgery-so-long-in-victoria/11706964> accessed 16 March 2022.

86 Australian Medical Association (AMA), ‘AMA Welcomes Pause in Elective Surgery in Victoria’ (30 July 2020) <https://www.ama.com.au/index.php/gp-network-news/ama-welcomes-pause-elective-surgery-victoria> accessed 16 March 2022.

87 AMA Victoria ‘Urgent Action Required for Elective Surgery’ (10 June 2021) <https://amavic.com.au/news---resources/stethoscope/-305--urgent-action-required-for-elective-surgery> accessed 16 March 2022.

88 AMA, Urgent Action Required on Elective Surgery (17 November 2021) <https://amavic.com.au/news---resources/stethoscope/urgent-action-required-on-elective-surgery> accessed 16 March 2022.

89 Department of Health, ‘Elective Surgery to Resume and $1.4 billion New Funding for Healthcare’ (4 February 2022) <https://www.health.vic.gov.au/elective-surgery-to-resume-and-14-billion-new-funding-for-healthcare> accessed 16 March 2022.

90 Timna Jacks, ‘Elective Surgery Waiting Lists Spiral Out at Major Hospitals’ The Age (17 February 2022) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/elective-surgery-waiting-lists-spiral-out-at-major-hospitals-20220217-p59×87.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

91 Caitlin Cassidy, ‘Delaying Elective Surgery Could spark ‘Massive Healthcare Crisis’ in Victoria, Experts Warn’ The Guardian (21 January 2022) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2022/jan/21/delaying-elective-surgery-could-spark-massive-healthcare-crisis-in-victoria-experts-warn> accessed 30 August 2022; Rhiannon Tuffield, ‘Victoria’s 80,000 Surgery Backlog Could Take Years To Address’ news.com.au (1 March 2022) <https://www.news.com.au/national/victoria/politics/victorias-80000-surgery-backlog-could-take-years-to-address/news-story/03cc2f2bd0338a6aed6915ff359b2e43> accessed 30 August 2022; Christopher Testa, Charmayne Allison and Courtney Howe, ‘Regional Victorian Hospitals Face Year-Long Backlog of Elective Surgeries’ ABC News (21 March 2022) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-03-01/regional-victorian-hospitals-face-elective-surgery-backlog/100871904> accessed 30 August 2022.

92 Farrah Tomazin, ‘“Pushing Towards a Crisis”: Dental Waiting Lists Blow Out to Record Levels’ The Age (15 August 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/pushing-towards-a-crisis-dental-waiting-lists-blow-out-to-record-levels-20210814-p58iph.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

93 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, ‘Cancer Screening and COVID-19 in Australia’ (17 December 2020) <https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/cancer-screening/cancer-screening-and-covid-19-in-australia/contents/how-has-covid-19-affected-australias-cancer-screening-programs> accessed 16 March 2022.

94 Timna Jacks and Lucy Carroll, ‘Stillbirths, Diabetes, Baby Sizes Rise in Victoria during Pandemic’ The Age (11 February 2022) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/stillbirths-diabetes-baby-sizes-rise-in-victoria-during-pandemic-20220131-p59shu.html> accessed 16 March 2022.

95 Christopher Testa, Jonathon Kendall and Amber Irving-Guthrie, ‘Women Waiting for IVF in Victoria will Still Face Delays after Procedures Resume’ ABC News (20 January 2022) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-01-21/women-to-face-longer-wait-as-ivf-resumes-in-victoria/100771110> accessed 16 March 2022.

96 Bridget Williams, ‘The Ethics of Selective Mandatory Vaccination for COVID-19’ Public Health Ethics (15 December 2021). doi:10.1093/phe/phab028 accessed 16 March 2022; Michael Kowalik, ‘Ethics of Vaccine Refusal’ Journal of Medical Ethics (26 February 2021). doi:10.1136/medethics-2020-107026 accessed 16 March 2022; Jeff King, Octávio Luiz Motta Ferraz and Andrew Jones, ‘Mandatory COVID-19 Vaccination and Human Rights’ The Lancet (23 December 2021). doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02873-7 accessed 16 March 2022.

97 Liberty Victoria, ‘Statement on Vaccine Mandates and Vaccine Passports’ (22 September 2021), <https://libertyvictoria.org.au/content/liberty-victoria-statement-vaccine-mandates-and-vaccine-passports> accessed 16 March 2022.

98 Mark E Czeisler, Joshua F Wiley, Elise R Facer-Childs, Rebecca Robins, Matthew D Weaver, Laura K Barger, Charles A Czeisler, Mark E Howard and Shantha MW Rajaratnam, ‘Mental Health, Substance Use, and Suicidal Ideation During a Prolonged Covid-19-Related Lockdown in a Region with Low SARS-CoV-2 Prevalence’ (2021) 140 Journal of Psychiatric Research 533.

99 Karin Hugelius, Nahoko Harada and Miki Marutani, ‘Consequences of Visiting Restrictions During the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Integrative Review’ (2021) 121 International Journal of Nursing Studies. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2021.104000.

100 Victorian Health Building Authority, ‘Victorian Budget Invests $512 million for Mental Health Treatment and Support’ (26 November 2020) <https://www.vhba.vic.gov.au/news/victorian-budget-2020-21-mental-health-investment> accessed 17 March 2022; Victorian Government, ‘Victorian Government Announces Historic Budget Investment in Mental Health’ (20 May 2021) <https://www.health.vic.gov.au/news/victorian-government-announces-historic-budget-investment-in-mental-health> accessed 17 March 2022.

101 Neelima Choahan and Nicole Asher, ‘COVID-19 Highlights Victoria’s Poor Mental Health Infrastructure and Lack of Funding, Experts Say’ ABC News (17 August 2021) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-08-18/melbourne-lockdown-mental-health-brett-sutton-response-covid/100384122> accessed 17 March 2022.

102 This aspect has been slightly improved via the controversial Public Health and Wellbeing Amendment (Pandemic Management) Act (Vic) 2021.

103 Australian Government Department of Health, Australian Health Management Plan for Pandemic Influenza (2019) <https://www1.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/ohp-ahmppi.htm> accessed 17 March 2022.

104 Norman Swan (2 January 2021) <https://twitter.com/normanswan/status/1345162358000218112> accessed 17 March 2022.

105 CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 23 (2016) on the Right to Just and Favourable Conditions of Work (Article 7 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights), E/C.12/GC/23 (27 April 2016).

106 Askola, Forbes-Mewett and Shmihelska (n 75).

107 Liberty Victoria (n 97).

108 See n 44.

109 Annika Smethurst, Farrah Tomazin, Erin Pearson and Katina Curtis, ‘Tough No Jab, No Job Rule Triggers Labour Fears’ The Age (1 October 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/politics/victoria/tough-no-jab-no-job-rules-trigger-labour-fears-20211001-p58wgu.html> accessed 17 March 2022; Akash Arora, ‘Victoria’s Proposed Pandemic Laws Trigger Melbourne Protest’ SBS News (13 November 2021) <https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/victorias-proposed-pandemic-laws-trigger-melbourne-protest/28s5fq3hk> accessed 17 March 2022.

110 Geoff Gilfillan, ‘COVID-19: Labour Market Impacts on Key Demographic Groups, Industries and Regions’ (23 October 2020) <https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/pubs/rp/rp2021/COVID-19-Stat_Snapshot> accessed 17 March 2022.

111 Australian Bureau of Statistics, ‘Employment and Hours Fall as Lockdowns Increase’ (16 September 2021) <https://www.abs.gov.au/media-centre/media-releases/employment-and-hours-fall-lockdowns-increase> accessed 17 March 2022.

112 Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, ‘Employment and Unemployment’ (16 September 2021) <https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/australias-welfare/employment-trends> accessed 17 March 2022; Jim Stanford, Shock Troops of the Pandemic: Casual and Insecure Work in COVID and Beyond (Australia Institute/Centre for Future Work 2021).

113 Ciprian N Radavoi and Ottavio Quirico, ‘Socioeconomic Rights in the Age of Pandemics: Covid-19 Large-Scale Lockdowns Have Exposed the Weakness of the Right to Work’ (2022) 21 Journal of Human Rights 73.

114 CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 18: Article 6 of the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights’ E/C.12/GC/18 (6 February 2006) para 31.

115 Primrose, Chang and Loeppky (n 21).

116 Michael Klapdor, ‘COVID-19 Economic Response — Social Security Measures Part 1: Temporary Supplement and Improved Access to Income Support’ Parliamentary Library Flagpost (23 March 2020) <https://www.aph.gov.au/About_Parliament/Parliamentary_Departments/Parliamentary_Library/FlagPost/2020/March/New_coronavirus_supplement> accessed 17 March 2022.

117 Askola, Forbes-Mewett and Shmihelska (n 75).

118 See eg Article 1(2) of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (adopted 21 December 1965, entered into force 4 January 1969), 660 UNTS 195.

119 CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 19: The Right to Social Security (Article 19) (2007)’ E/C.12/GC/19 (4 February 2008), para 59; Malcolm Langford, ‘The Right to Social Security and Implications for Law, Policy and Practice’ in Eibe Riedel (ed), Social Security as a Human Right (Springer 2006).

120 Department of Health and Human Services (n 82).

121 Klapdor and Lotric (n 82).

122 Radavoi and Quirico (n 113) 77.

123 Andrea Veltman, Meaningful Work (Oxford University Press 2006).

124 James Glenday and Tom Lowrey, ‘Scott Morrison and Daniel Andrews Agree on Support Deal for Victoria, as National Cabinet Prepares to Discuss COVID-19 Lockdown Crisis’ ABC News (15 July 2021) <https://www.abc.net.au/news/2021-07-16/new-support-deal-victoria-as-national-cabinet-prepares-to-meet/100297156> accessed 17 March 2022.

125 Stanford (n 112).

126 CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 4: The Right to Adequate Housing (Art.11 (1) of the Covenant)’ E/1992/23 (13 December 1991); CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 7: The Right to Adequate Housing: Forced Evictions’ E/1998/22 (20 May 1997).

127 Kevin Bell and Jean Allain, ‘Homelessness and Human Rights in Australia’ in Paula Gerber and Melissa Castan (eds), Critical Perspectives on Human Rights Law in Australia (Vol 2, Lawbook Co, 2022), 10.

128 Hal Pawson, Chris Martin, Alistair Sisson and Sian Thompson, COVID-19: Rental Housing and Homelessness Policy Impacts (ACOSS/UNSW 2021).

129 Once the moratorium expired, the Victorian Civil and Administrative Tribunal found it was lawful to evict a person for unpaid rent accrued during the moratorium: Jewel Topsfield, ‘Call for COVID-19 Rental Relief after Tribunal Backs Eviction in Landmark Case’ The Age (9 August 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/call-for-covid-19-rental-relief-after-tribunal-backs-eviction-in-landmark-case-20210809-p58h01.html> accessed 17 March 2022.

130 Pawson and others (n 128).

131 See e.g. Parliament of Victoria Legislative Council Legal and Social Issues Committee, Inquiry into Homelessness in Victoria (Final Report, 2021) <https://www.parliament.vic.gov.au/images/stories/committees/SCLSI/Inquiry_into_Homelessness_in_Victoria/Report/LCLSIC_59-06_Homelessness_in_Vic_Final_report.pdf> accessed 17 March 2022.

132 Camille Bianchi, Rachel Cary and Biwa Kwan, ‘“It's Horrific”: Residents of Melbourne's Locked-down Towers are Struggling to Receive Essential Supplies’, SBS News (6 July 2020) <https://www.sbs.com.au/news/article/its-horrific-residents-of-melbournes-locked-down-towers-are-struggling-to-receive-essential-supplies/6trugh6og> accessed 17 March 2022.

133 Victorian Ombudsman, Investigation into the Detention and Treatment of Public Housing Residents Arising from a COVID-19 ‘Hard Lockdown’ in July 2020 (17 December 2020) <https://www.ombudsman.vic.gov.au/our-impact/investigation-reports/investigation-into-the-detention-and-treatment-of-public-housing-residents-arising-from-a-covid-19-hard-lockdown-in-july-2020/> accessed 17 March 2022.

134 Victorian Ombudsman, Investigation into Decision-making under the Victorian Border Crossing Permit Directions (7 December 2021) <https://www.ombudsman.vic.gov.au/our-impact/investigation-reports/investigation-into-decision-making-under-the-victorian-border-crossing-permit-directions/> accessed 17 March 2022.

135 Public schools remained open for children of essential workers and for children at risk (including from family violence or neglect): Annie Wright, Primary and Secondary School Closures in Victoria due to COVID-19 (Parliamentary Library and Information Service, Parliament of Victoria 2021).

136 WHO, ‘WHO Director-General’s Introductory Remarks at the Press Briefing with UNESCO and UNICEF’ (15 September 2020) <https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-introductory-remarks-at-the-press-briefing-with-unesco-and-unicef> accessed 17 March 2022.

137 Fiona Russell and Sharon Goldfeld, An Analysis of COVID-19 in ECEC and Schools and Evidence-Based Recommendations for Re-Opening ECEC and Schools & Keeping them Open (Murdoch Children’s Research Institute 2021) <https://www.mcri.edu.au/sites/default/files/media/covid_in_schools_report_final_10112020.pdf> accessed 17 March 2022; Archana Koirala, Sharon Goldfeld, Asha C Bowen, Catherine Choong, Kathleen Ryan, Nicholas Wood, Noni Winkler, Margie Danchin, Kristine Macartney and Fiona M Russell, ‘Lessons Learnt During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Why Australian Schools should be Prioritised to Stay Open’ (2021) 57 Journal of Paediatrics and Child Health 1362.

138 Davis (n 71).

139 Amy Maguire and Donna McNamara, ‘Human Rights and the Post-pandemic Return to Classroom Education in Australia’ (2020) 45 Alternative Law Journal 202.

140 Cassandra Morgan and Sumeyya Ilanbey, ‘Victoria in Vaccination Surge as Andrews Defends School Closures’ The Age (26 August 2021) <https://www.theage.com.au/national/victoria/victoria-records-80-new-covid-19-cases-as-melbourne-emergency-department-listed-as-exposure-site-20210826-p58lzr.html> accessed 17 March 2022.

141 CESCR, ‘General Comment No. 13: The Right to Education (Article 13 of the Covenant), E/C.12/1999/10 (8 December 1999).

142 CESCR, ‘Statement on the Coronavirus’ (n 47) 7.

143 Catherine F Drane, Lynette Vernon and Sarah O’Shea, ‘Vulnerable Learners in the Age of COVID-19: A Scoping Review’ (2021) 48 Australian Educational Researcher 585; Davis (n 71).

144 Bambra, Lynch and Smith (n 22) 42.

145 Ferraz (n 4) 110–11.

146 Jason Talevski, Stefanie Bird and Sharon Brennan-Olsen, ‘Low Socio-economic Status and Impact of COVID-19 in Victoria’ InSight (22 February 2021) <https://insightplus.mja.com.au/2021/5/low-socio-economic-status-and-impact-of-covid-19-in-victoria/> accessed 17 March 2022.

147 Solomon (n 30) 34.

148 Hence the proposal to add human right to housing into the Victorian Charter. While this may raise the profile of the right to housing, it may further marginalise other social and economic rights.

149 Dianne Otto and David Wiseman, ‘In Search of “Effective Remedies”: Applying the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights to Australia’ (2001) 7 Australian Journal of Human Rights 5, 15.

150 Müller (n 10) 600.

151 Hugh Collins, ‘Political Ideology in Australia: The Distinctiveness of a Benthamite Society’ (1985) 114 Daedalus 147.

152 See n 9 and accompanying text.

153 The new statutory framework (n 101) makes some, albeit modest, improvements in this regard.

154 Ibid 577.

155 Ferraz (n 4); CESCR, ‘Statement on the Coronavirus’ (n 47).

156 Primrose, Chang and Loeppky (n 21).

157 Rob Harris, ‘Federal Labor Dumps Negative Gearing Policy, Backs Tax Cuts’ Sydney Morning Herald (26 July 2021) <https://www.smh.com.au/politics/federal/labor-dumps-negative-gearing-backs-tax-cuts-20210726-p58cxs.html>; Paul Karp, ‘Labor Flags Policy to Boost Jobseeker But Backs Away from Promise to Specify Figure’ The Guardian (26 February 2021) <https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2021/feb/26/labor-flags-policy-to-boost-jobseeker-but-backs-away-from-promise-to-specify-figure> accessed 30 August 2022; Chanticleer, ‘Politicians are Papering Over the Real Flaws in The Housing Market’ Australian Financial Review (17 May 2022) <https://www.afr.com/chanticleer/papering-over-the-real-flaws-in-the-housing-market-20220517-p5alyr> accessed 30 August 2022.

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Notes on contributors

Heli Askola

Heli Askola is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Law, Monash University.