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Abstract
Before the First World War, there were significant transnational movements and interactions between colonies of different European powers in imperial Africa, a fact that is often neglected in research on imperial and colonial history. The paper addresses such movements, taking the town of Lüderitzbucht in the German colony of South West Africa as an example. Here, from 1908 onwards, a diamond boom attracted migrant workers from other colonies on a great scale, especially from the neighbouring British Cape. Lüderitzbucht is thus identified as a ‘transnational space’, where interactions between colonial states, conflicting interests of the German colonial administration and German business as well as the life and environment of African migrant workers can be investigated. The developments in Lüderitzbucht point to a growing interconnectedness during a period of worldwide globalisation that also reached the African colonies. German companies in particular were keen to explore the opportunities of a new migrant workforce. Conversely, the paper also stresses that such closer interactions led to a desire to demarcate a national style of colonial rule, especially in the case of the German colonial administration. The growing mixed society developing in Lüderitzbucht was obviously highly disturbing for the South West African government. The move of African workers from a British colony to a German colony also entailed a clash of different colonial cultures. As a further point, the focus on transnational connections highlights the otherwise hidden agency of African workers. Individual fates become visible through the use of new sources that would not be of interest to a history solely concentrating on the German or the British colony.
Notes
1. Cf. CitationBurton. “Getting Outside of the Global: Re-Positioning British Imperialism in World History”; CitationGrant et al., eds, Beyond Sovereignty; CitationLambert and Lester. Colonial Lives Across the British Empire.
2. CitationOsterhammel. Die Verwandlung der Welt, 578–9.
3. CitationThompson. “The Power and Privileges of Association,” 58; see also CitationLester. Imperial Networks, 5.
4. Osterhammel, Jürgen, and Sebastian Conrad. “Einleitung.” In Das Kaiserreich transnational, ed. Sebastian CitationConrad and Jürgen Osterhammel, 7-28, 14. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Rupprecht, 2004; CitationPaulmann. “Grenzüberschreitungen und Grenzräume,” 179. See for a recent broad discussion of the term transnational history CitationSaunier. “Learning by Doing.”
5. CitationThelen, “The Nation and Beyond,” 967.
6. CitationOsterhammel. “Imperien,” 62; see also the publications of Christopher Bayly who uses rather the term ‘world history’ to describe the connections within and between empires. CitationBayly, The Birth of the Modern World 1780–1914.
7. See for a discussion of British and German concepts of colonial rule in Africa, CitationLindner, “Colonialism as a European Project in Africa Before 1914?”
8. CitationPatel. “Transnationale Geschichte: Ein neues Paradigma?”
9. The use of ‘transterritorial’ is in itself less connected with the borders of nation-states and would be thus very appropriate for describing movements between colonial spaces. See for the use of the term ‘transterritorial’ in political sciences, especially with regard to regions in Africa, CitationLatham, “Identifying the Contours of Transboundary Political Life,” 75.
10. Michael Geyer and Charles Bright also asked for studies on movements in local settings to analyse processes of globalisation, see CitationGeyer and Bright, “World History in a Global Age,” 1054.
11. National Archives of Namibia (NAN), ZBU 136 A IV B 3, Kaiserliches Gouvernement für Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Britisches Konsulat in Lüderitzbucht, 1911–1914, passim.
12. Cf. NAN, BCL 13, BCL 14, BCL 17, BCL 25.
13. The research in South Africa, Namibia and the UK was conducted with help of the Alexander von Humboldt foundation. I would like to thank them for their support.
14. See for the history of the Cape Colony:CitationDavenport and Saunders, South Africa, 101–6.
15. CitationHubatsch et al., “Die Schutzgebiete des Deutschen Reiches,” 424–30; Gründer, Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien, 111–27.
16. Cf. NAN, ZBU 3 A I B 7, Kaiserliches Gouvernement für Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Abgrenzung des Schutzgebietes. Specialia Walfischbaigebiet, 1885–1907.
17. See the many reports of the resident magistrate John Cleverly, e.g. National Archives, Public Record Office, Kew (TNA PRO) FO 244/495, J. Cleverly Resident Magistrate Walfisch Bay to the Under-Secretary of Native Affairs, Cape Town, State of Affairs at Walfisch Bay, 18.12.1891; see generally CitationDreyer. The Mind of Official Imperialism.
18. See generally Beinart, “‘Jamani.’”
19. NAN, BLU 174, Abschrift, Staatstelegramm von Swakopmund nach Windhuk, 4.6.1904; Cape Town Archives Repository, NA 644 Part I, Resident Magistrate Walfish Bay to the Under Secretary of Native Affairs, Cape Town, Refugees coming to Walfish Bay, 4.6.1904. See also CitationGewald, Herero Heroes, 214.
20. For the difficulties and the conflicts between GSWA and the Cape Colony concerning these transports see CitationDedering, “War and Mobility in the Borderlands of South Western Africa in the Early Twentieth Century.”
21. CitationEdgecombe. “The Non-racial Franchise in Cape Politics 1853–1910.”
22. CitationBickford-Smith. Ethnic Pride and Racial Prejudice in Victorian Cape Town.
23. CitationCornwell, “George Webb Hardy's ‘The Black Peril’ and the Social Meaning of ‘Black Peril’ in Early Twentieth-century Africa,” 443–4. Alliances between white women and black men were banned in 1903, aiming at white prostitutes and the white underclass, but there was no general ban on mixed relationships as in German South West Africa.
24. CitationVon Trotha, “Zur Entstehung von Recht: Deutsche Kolonialherrschaft und Recht im Schutzgebiet ‘Togo’ 1884–1918”; for the native decrees of 1906/1907 in German South West Africa see CitationBley, Kolonialherrschaft und Sozialstruktur in Deutsch-Südwestafrika 1894–1914, 208–12; CitationZimmerer, Deutsche Herrschaft über Afrikaner, 77–83.
25. Cf. CitationKundrus. Moderne Imperialisten, 234–49; see also CitationLindner, “Contested concepts of ‘white’ and ‘native’.”
26. See e.g. reports of the German consuls in Cape Town: Politisches Archiv des Auswärtigen Amtes Berlin (PA AA), R 14869, Deutsches Generalkonsulat Kapstadt to Reichskanzler von Bethmann Hollweg, 23.6.1913, R 14867, Schroetter, Kaiserliches Konsulat Durban, to Reichskanzler von Bethmann Hollweg, 8.2.1912.
27. CitationDrechsler, Südwestafrika unter deutscher Kolonialherrschaft: Die großen Land- und Minengesellschaften, 256–73.
28. In the British colonies, black workers and servants were often called boys, denoting them thus as children, inferior to the white colonisers. In the German colonies, the migrants from the Cape Colony were addressed accordingly as Kapjungen or Kapboys. Cf. for the term ‘Boy’ CitationKennedy, Islands of White, 153. Cf. for the use of the word ‘Kapjunge’ Bundesarchiv Berlin (BAB), R 1002/2777, Inspektion der Landespolizei to Gouverneur Windhuk, Polizeiliche Maßnahmen am Bahnbau, 25.10.1910, 137–9; ibid., Kaiserliches Bezirksamt Karibib to Kaiserliches Gouvernement Windhuk, Tote und verwundete Kapeingeborene, 13.10.1910, 170–1.
29. For Stauch and Lewala, cf. CitationLevinson, Diamanten im Sand, 40–1. Lewala later worked as a coachman for Stauch.
30. CitationGründer, Geschichte der deutschen Kolonien, 80.
31. Drechsler, 277.
32. CitationRohrbach, Dernburg und die südwestafrikanische Diamantenfrage, 67–9.
33. See for Dernburg's trip in South Africam CitationBongardm Staatssekretär Dernburg in Britisch- und Deutsch-Süd-Afrika.
34. Drechsler, 281–2.
35. During the Herero and Nama war the colony had needed a sum of 122 million Marks from the German state only for the year 1905.
36. Cf. for the growth of Lüderitzbucht TNA PRO, WO 106/268, Colonel Trench, attached to the German Forces in SWA, Keetmanshoop, to Secretary to the War Office, London, 12.7.1905; WO 106/268, Colonel Trench, attached to the German Forces in SWA, Lüderitzbucht, to the Chief Staff Officer, Cape Colony, 14.11.1905. Also, one of the most horrible prison camps was erected on Haifish Island, in the bay of Lüderitz, where thousands of captured Nama had to live under terrible conditions and had to carry out forced labour in Lüderitzbucht.
37. Cf. Levinson, 102–15.
38. CitationVan Onselen. The Fox and the Flies, 267–84.
39. NAN, BCL 13, Kaiserliches Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht to Britisches Konsulat, 21.7.1912.
40. Levinson, 102.
41. Cf. NAN, ZBU 2074, Woermann-Linie to Kaiserliches Gouvernement, Windhuk, 12.9.1907; NAN, BCL 12, Consul Müller to Minister for Native Affairs, Pretoria, 11.8.1911; Müller discusses the labour demand on the diamond fields in 1911/1912 – he expects an intensified recruitment of Capeboys.
42. Beinart, 167.
43. Foreign Office Confidential Prints 9768, Memorandum Respecting the Affairs of German South-West Africa, 31.12.1910.
44. See the files of the Cape administration dealing with migrant workers in German South West Africa, that contain contracts and wage disputes, e.g. Cape Town Archives Repository, BA 729, Colonial Secretary's Office, Wages due to Native Labourers who died in German South West Africa, 1907–1911.
45. Cf. for the complaints of workers the files of the British consulate in Lüderitzbucht, e.g. NAN, BCL 12, passim.
46. See generally for the incident in Zimmerer, 230–6; Beinart, 180–3.
47. BAB, R 1002/2777, Niederschrift über die Beschwerden der Capeboys bei der Firma Bachstein und Koppel, 27.10.1910: 133–135; National Archives of South Africa, Pretoria, GG 275 4/14, Office of the Governor-General of South Africa, Collision between German Troops and certain Transkei Kaffirs working in GSWA, 16.10.1910.
48. National Archives of South Africa, Pretoria, GG 276 4/26, The Union of South Africa, Prime Minister's Office, Collision between troops and Cape natives in German South West Africa, 3.1.1911; TNA PRO, FO 367/275, Collision at Wilhelmsthal between German Troops and Cape Kaffirs, 22.1.1912.
49. TNA PRO, FO 367/275, Ambassador Goschen, Berlin, to Grey, Foreign Office, Wilhelmsthal Incident, 5.2.1912.
50. NAN, BCL 13, Confidential, Consul Müller to Burton, Native Affairs Department, 29.4.1911.
51. PA AA, Kapstadt 49, Bd. 2, Abschrift, Bericht des Reverend Rubusana, 28.1.1911.
52. See NAN, ZBU 136 A IV B 3, Kaiserliches Gouvernement für Deutsch-Südwestafrika, Britisches Konsulat in Lüderitzbucht, 1911–1914.
53. BAB, R 1001/2189, Reichskolonialamt, Vertretung fremder Staaten in Deutsch-Südwestafrika, 1909; Cape Town Archives Repository, GH 35/150, Consul Müller in Lüderitzbucht, December 1909.
54. See for Merrimans policy CitationLewsen, “Merriman as Last Cape Prime Minister”; see for Müller and Merriman the correspondence between both in the file Cape Town Archives Repository, GH 35/150.
55. NAN, BCL 8, Langley, Foreign Office, to Consul Müller, Lüderitzbucht, 1910.
56. NAN, BCL 12, British Consulate Lüderitzbucht to Native Affairs Department Cape Town, 29.4.1911.
57. NAN, BCL 17, J. Abramse to Consul Müller, 25.12.1910.
58. NAN, BCL 13, British Consulate Lüderitzbucht to Bauleitung Lüderitzbucht Eisenbahn, 7.6.1912. ‘Die Eingeborenen Behoerde der Sued Afrikanischen Union hat mich ersucht, die Bauleitung mit der ergebenen Bitte naeher zu treten ob dort nicht veranlasst werden koennte dass der Maxosakaffer Joseph Vena No.1201, dessen rechtes Bein infolge eines Unterschenkelbruches amputiert werden musste, eine weiteren Entschaedigung erhalten koennte. Es ist ueblich, dass den Eingeborenen die in den Minen zu Johannesburg arbeiten, eine Entschaedigung in Hoehe von £ 20 in derartigen Faellen zu bekommen. Da die erwaehnte Behoerde £ 20 fuer angemessen erachtet, darf ich die Bauleitung erg. bitten, die Bitte der Eingeborenen Behoerde in wohlwollender Erwaegung ziehen zu wollen.’
59. NAN, BCK 13, Bauleitung Lüderitzbucht-Eisenbahn to British Consul, 14.6.1912.
60. NAN, BCL 22, Kaiserlicher Bezirksamtmann Lüderitzbucht to Consul Müller, 13.9.1911.
61. NAN, BCL 22, Schlepps to Consul Müller, Lüderitzbucht, 6.9.1911.
62. NAN, BCL 22, Consul Müller to Gouverneur von DSWA, Seitz, 18.9.1911.
63. NAN, BCL 22, British Consul for German South West Africa to Governor General, Viscount Gladstone, 9.3.1912.
64. NAN, ZBU 2074, Blumhagen, Bezirksamt Swakopmund, über Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht to Kaiserliches Gouvernement Windhuk, 15.10.1907.
65. See for example the petition of the German shipping company Woermannlinie to allow long-term immigration of Cape workers, see NAN, ZBU 2074, Woermann-Linie an das Kaiserliche Gouvernement, Windhuk. 12.9.1907.
66. NAN, BLU 25, Vermerk, Kaiserliches Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht, 8.11.1913; NAN, BLU 25, Diamanten Gesellschaft to Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht, 28.8.1913.
67. Zimmerer and CitationBeinart both argue that migration to German South West Africa stopped after the incident in Wilhelmsthal. After analysing files of the Cape government and the British consulate in Lüderitzbucht for the years after 1911 I cannot support their thesis, migration continued – on a lower scale – until the First World War.
68. NAN, BCL 12, British Consulate Lüderitzbucht to Native Affairs Department Cape Town, 29.4.1911. In the documents of the British consulate and in the files of the German administration of Lüderitzbucht one can find a growing number of Cape immigrants in the district of Lüderitzbucht.
69. NAN, ZBU 2074, Blumhagen, Bezirksamt Swakopmund, über Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht to Gouvernement Windhuk, 15.10.1907. Blumhagen wrote: ‘Die Capboys sind zumeist Mischlinge und es muss meines Erachtens nach den üblen Erfahrungen die fast jeder Staat mit Mischlingsbevölkerung gemacht hat, die Zunahme der Mischlingsbevölkerung möglichst verhindert werden.’
70. NAN, BCL 14, Niederheitman, South African Territories to Consul Müller, 20.12.1912.
71. NAN, BCL 14, Abschrift, Beschluss, Kaiserliches Bezirksgericht Keetmanshoop, 16.12.1912.
72. NAN, BCL 14, William Silke to Consul Müller, 21.12.1912.
73. NAN, BCL 14, Müller, British Consul to Niederheitmann, 31.1.1913; BCL 14, Union of South Africa, Magistrate at Mossel Bay to Müller, 23.1.1913.
74. NAN BLU 25, Müller, British Consulate Lüderitzbucht to Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht, 17.10.1912.
75. NAN BLU 25, Deutsche Kolonial-Eisenbahn-Bau- und Betriebsgesellschaft to Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht, 8.11.1913. (author's own translation)
76. NAN, BLU 25, Vermerk, 20.10.1912.
77. CitationConrad, Globalisierung und Nation im Deutschen Kaiserreich, 127–35. For example, the Polish migrant workers were forced to return to their home.
78. CitationLegassick and de Clercq, “Capitalism and migrant labour in Southern Africa,” 147; CitationMarks and Rathbone, Industrialisation and Social Change in South Africa 1870–1930; CitationJeeves, Migrant Labour and South Africa's Mining Economy.
79. NAN, ZBU 2074, Woermann-Linie to Kaiserliche Gouvernement, Windhuk, 12.9.1907.
80. NAN, BLU 25, Pomona Diamanten-Gesellschaft to Bezirksamt Lüderitzbucht, 27.8.1913.
81. NAN, BLU 25, Hänert to Bezirksamtmann Böhmer, 4.6.1914 (author's own translation).
82. NAN, BLU 25, Bezirksamtmann Böhmer to Hänert, 6.6.1914.