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Abstract
Alphonse Aulard (1849–1928) institutionalised and professionalised the practice of history. Beyond this undisputed contribution, however, Aulard's place in historiography remains contested. Scholars' perceptions that anti-clerical and radical-republican commitments skewed his research findings, and that he chose narrowly to study history as a series of constitutional, institutional and political developments in stark contrast with his student Albert Mathiez, have divided opinion regarding the beliefs and significance of Aulard. Yet Aulard's work and the cultural and political contribution it made have become a source of inspiration for a generation of scholars now studying revolutionary and European history. Based for the first time on an examination of his private papers, professional activities and oeuvre in tandem, this article revisits Aulard, and, using a post-analytic hermeneutics, re-reads his work in order to show how in his age Aulard advanced a demonstrably original contribution to historical research. He likewise left behind him a neo-Jacobin legacy more attentive to raison d'état than party division and championing international, liberal democracy and human rights. Multifaceted commitments therefore both explain the content of Aulard's oeuvre and help to understand contemporary developments, and suggest future directions, in historical enquiry.
Notes
1. CitationAulard, Histoire politique, ix.
2. Febvre to Berr, 3 December 1930, in Pluet et al., Lettres, 410.
3. CitationMoody, “Third Republic,” 9.
4. Archives Nationales (AN) F7/15929/1 Anonymous Report, “Aulard, candidat aux élections législatives,” n.d. November 1919.
5. CitationHesse, “The New Jacobins.”
6. France remains exempt from Anglophone pessimism about this category of analysis: Collini, Absent Minds, 248–78; CitationPosner, Public Intellectuals, 12.
7. CitationHazareesingh, Jacobin Legacy, 5–11.
8. See CitationFoucault, “Nietzsche, Genealogy, History,” 147. But “genealogies operate as denaturalizing critiques of ideas and practices that hide the contingency of human life behind formal ahistorical or developmental perspectives.” CitationBevir, “What is Genealogy?”, 263.
9. CitationBevir, Logic, 54, 188–89, 212.
10. CitationBevir, “History of Ideas,” 110.
11. CitationFriguglietti, “Alphonse Aulard,” 242, 244.
12. AN F7/15929/1/5 Folder “Aulard, Alphonse”; on marital wealth, Friguglietti, “Radical Historian,” 245–6.
13. Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF) NAF 13571/XLV/36-41, NAF 24874/I/101–118. On Reinach, see CitationHarris, Man on Devil's Island, 290–1; NAF 13571/XLV/38-39 Aulard to Reinach, 18 July 1906.
14. Wolikow, “Centenaire dans le Bicentenaire,” 431; Friguglietti, “Radical Historian,” 245; AN F17/22600/B Ménard-Dorian to Armand Fallières, 7 June 1884 and 18 June 1884.
15. Déclarations, ed. Aulard and Mirkine-Guetzévich.
16. CitationKeylor, Academy, 68–74, 172–3; CitationGérard, La Révolution, 72–100; see also CitationCharle, La République, 189–241.
17. cf. CitationGodechot, Un Jury, 240–1.
18. CitationBoer, History as a Profession, 248, 280–308, 426.
19. Bourdé, “L'École méthodique,” in CitationBourdé and Hervé, Écoles historiques, 201; AN F17/22600/B Liard to Fallières 18 Mar. 1886; Garcia, “Le Moment méthodique,” 172–6.
20. cf. CitationMarrou, De la connaissance historique, 53–4; CitationCarbonell, Histoire et historiens, 409–51.
21. CitationCarbonell, Sciences historiques.
22. Noronha-DiVanna, Writing History.
23. Furet, “Histoire universitaire,” 112, 124.
24. CitationBerger and Lorenz, Nationalizing the Past.
25. CitationWandel, “History of the Past,” 291–300.
26. CitationProst, Douze leçons, 93.
27. See CitationAulard, Archives révolutionnaires.
28. CitationBlanc, Révolution française; CitationMichelet, Révolution française.
29. Aulard, Histoire politique, 19, 44, 50, 80–3, 112, Révolution française, iii, 220–2, 242–4, Citation Le Christianisme , 24, 29, 34, 40, 54–5, 91, 139, 149.
30. CitationCerteau, Histoire, 77–8; Chartier, Au Bord, 161, 195; CitationRicoeur, La Mémoire, 274; CitationVeyne, Comment on écrit l'histoire, 13–28.
31. See CitationFriguglietti, “Politics of History,” 380; Aulard seldom described his own work as document-based science, see Aulard, Le Christianisme, 10, but contemporary praise, AN F17 22600/B L'Aurore, 18 July 1904. CitationSmith, The Gender of History, 6–8, 213–15; CitationNovick, That Noble Dream, 6, 294–9; CitationWhite, Metahistory, 426–8.
32. Bevir, Logic, 40.
33. Bevir, “History of Ideas,” 110.
34. Aulard, Le Christianisme, 99.
35. Aulard, Napoleon, 364.
36. Ibid, 84; Aulard, Le Christianisme, 18, 21, 56.
37. , Psychologie, La Révolution française; CitationLanglois and Seignobos, Introduction, 133–58.
38. AN AB/XIX/4404/41 Aulard to Caron, 11 June 1907.
39. CitationBelloni, Aulard, 46; CitationCaron, “De L'Étude,” 150.
40. AN AB/XIX/4404/41 Aulard to Caron, 11 June 1907.
41. Aulard, Le Christianisme, 10.
42. Aulard, Révolution française, i; on the period, CitationKedward, La Vie, 30–43.
43. BNF NAF 25166/1 Abensour to Lavisse, 5 July 1923.
44. CitationFauré, “Naissance d'un anachronisme,” 193–8.
45. BNF NAF 24481/XV/9 Aulard to Louis Havet, 12 May 1890.
46. BNF NAF 15689/II/18 Aulard to Houtin, 7 December 1912; NAF 15715/XXVIII/146 Aulard to Pulligny, 26 May 1926.
47. Achives Départmentales (AD) Côtes d'Armor 141 J/11 Aulard, “Rapport sur la thèse de M. l'abbé Pommeret,” 25 December 1920.
48. CitationAulard, “L'Enseignement,” 453–4.
49. CitationVovelle, Combats, 11.
50. cf. CitationDoyle, “Aulard,” 25.
51. See CitationFriguglietti, Albert Mathiez, 103–8.
52. CitationMathiez, Révolution française, 1: 1–2, Citation“La Science,” 457–9, 601–6.
53. CitationMathiez, Vie chère, 1: 13, 2: 242.
54. CitationAulard, Régime féodale, iii, 2, 42, 46, 49, 69, 241–2.
55. Bevir, Logic, 199.
56. Mathiez, Vie chère, 1: 87–92, 194–6, 2: 185–6, 223–6.
57. BNF NAF 24481/XV/197 Aulard to Havet 12 March 1900.
58. CitationFebvre, “Albert Mathiez,” 573–6, 575.
59. Dunan, “Alphonse Aulard,” in Bourgin, Cahiers d'Histoire, 20.
60. Aulard, Histoire politique, 694–701.
61. CitationPetiteau, Napoléon, 205-206; Aulard, Napoleon, 148, 152, 365.
62. CitationCobb, “Georges Lefebvre,” 60.
63. Aulard, Napoleon, 365, 123, 335.
64. Ibid., 339–40.
65. See Cobb, “Georges Lefebvre,” 60; CitationLefebvre, Napoléon, 239–40, 565.
66. Bevir, “History of Ideas,” 110; CitationSchroeder, Transformation of European Politics, xi.
67. Carbonnell fails to connect positivism to historical practice; DiVanna shows its minority appeal, DiVanna, Writing History, 17, 21.
68. CitationAulard, Danton; CitationDubost, Danton; Citation Danton et les massacres ; CitationRobinet's, “Danton,” 1013.
69. CitationComte, Cours, 1: 37–53.
70. CitationFling, “Historical Synthesis,” 3, 21; CitationFling, Writing of History, 187–90.
71. Quissac, “L'Action française,” 168; CitationPéguy, Notre Jeunesse, 202, Citation Clio , 197–8.
72. AN F17/17136 Eugène Speller to Aulard, 18 May 1894.
73. CitationSeignobos, Review of Georges d'Avenel, 106–18.
74. BNF NAF 13688/77 Aulard to Chuquet, 25 March 1896.
75. BNF NAF 13691/1 Avenel to Chuquet, 10 April 1896.
76. CitationNoiriel, “Naissance,” 61, 64.
77. CitationPalsky, “Émile Levasseur,” 75.
78. BNF NAF 13691/13 Aulard to Chuquet, 20 Jun. 1896.
79. Bevir, “History of Ideas,” 107; Bayet, “Réflexions,” 28.
80. Aulard, Histoire politique, 320.
81. Schnapper, “Making Citizens,” 199.
82. CitationGuilhamou, Langue politique.
83. CitationAulard, Orateurs, 1: 1–6, Citation Grands Orateurs .
84. BNF NAF 24874/I/101-102 Aulard to Reinach, 15 Nov. 1884.
85. Steiner, “Aspects of Counter-Revolution,” 129.
86. Aulard, Histoire politique, ix; Maitland, “Laws of the Anglo-Saxons” [1904], in CitationFisher, ed., Collected Papers, 3: 459 cf. CitationSeignobos, Méthode historique, 284.
87. CitationAulard and Sabrī, Révolution égyptienne; CitationAulard, Histoire des Soviets.
88. CitationAulard, “La Dette américaine,” 319–38.
89. CitationHalpérin, Histoire; CitationAulard, Déclarations.
90. Bevir, “History of Ideas,” 109.
91. CitationAulard, “Président Wilson,” 289–91; CitationLuzzatto, “Tranchées,” 26.
92. BNF NAF 15689/II/87 Aulard to Houtin, 23 August 1915.
93. BNF NAF 15715/121 Aulard to Houtin, 18 August 1918; NAF 15992/357-58 Aulard to Poincaré, 13 Dec. 1926; AN F7/15929/1 “Réunion en faveur de la paix,” 28 May 1922; CitationAulard, L'Opinion, 226, 250.
94. Vovelle, Combats, 31–2.
95. Aulard, Citation Patriotisme ; Citation Patriotisme français .
96. Bayet, “Reflexions,” 30.
97. CitationAulard and Debidour, Histoire, 3.
98. Furet, “Histoire universitaire,” 123.
99. CitationHutton, “The Role of Memory,” 63.
100. Bayet, “Réflexions,” 28–9.
101. Aulard, “Le Monopole aux trois degrés,” Action 19 October 1903, in Aulard, Polémique, 359.
102. Aulard, “L'Indépendance des instituteurs,” Aurore, 16 August 1903, in Citationibid., 350.
103. Aulard, “Liberté réglée,” Dépêche de Toulouse, 16 September 1902, in ibid., 317.
104. Ibid., 319; Aulard, “École laïque,” Dépêche de Toulouse, 3 November 1903, in ibid., 361, 365.
105. Taylor, “Why We Need a Radical Redefinition of Secularism,” 40.
106. CitationMayeur, Histoire, 738; CitationKahn, Laïcité, 120; CitationBars, “Revendications identitaires.”
107. CitationLeygues, L'École; cf. Lavisse, “Discours prononcé à la séance de rentrée de la Faculté des lettres de Paris,” 3 November 1887, in CitationLavisse, Études et étudiants, 161.
108. CitationVovelle, “Troisième Voie,” 217; Vovelle, Combats, 68–9; CitationRienzo, “‘L'Histoire de si,’” 135.
109. CitationSerna, République, 7.
110. Hesse, “New Jacobins,” 663–5.
111. CitationBorghetti, L'Œuvre, 30.
112. CitationSagnac, “Étude statistique,” 97–115.
113. AN ABXIX/3526/14 Sagnac, “Sur la Révolution: 2ème leçon,” notebook Cours et leçons 1936-37; CitationSagnac, La Révolution; Citation“De La Méthode,” 5–6.
114. Borghetti, L'Œuvre, 134–5; on Russian scholars, BNF NAF 15689/243 Le Censeur, July 1907 and CitationOliva, “Georges Lefebvre,” 399–410; Sagnac, La Révolution; CitationCarrard, Poétique, 28; CitationGottschalk, “Philippe Sagnac,” 145–6.
115. CitationLabrousse, “Entretien,” Citation Esquisse , 1: 146, 218.
116. Borghetti, L'Œuvre, 64.
117. CitationDoyle, Origins, 5–9.
118. CitationAulard, “M. Lefebvre,” 222. Lefebvre himself claimed that Aulard said nothing other than that the doctorate constituted a good catalogue without omissions, see CitationPalou, “Lefebvre,” 85–9.
119. CitationLefebvre, “Recherches,” 104.
120. CitationLefebvre, “Rapport de M. Lefebvre,” 2: 238–43.
121. CitationLefebvre, Révolution française, 80, 637, Citation“Foules historiques,” 79; Davis, “Georges Lefebvre,” 423.
122. Lefebvre, “Foules historiques,” 107; Aulard, Histoire politique, 60–70; CitationDumoulin, “Georges Lefebvre,” 5; CitationGinzburg, “A proposito,” 338.
123. CitationJones, Peasantry, 128, 203.
124. Bevir, “History of Ideas,” 110; Serna, “Lefebvre au travail,” 8.
125. CitationDoyle, “Aristocratic Reaction,” 97–122; CitationGodechot, Les Institutions, 38; CitationJennings, Revolution, 292–6, 298–300.
126. CitationGaulle, Mémoires, 7; Delacroix et al., Courants historiques, 560, 574–5.
127. CitationBackouche et al., “Le Maison de l'Histoire.”
128. Serna, République, ix.
129. Wesseling, “The Annales School,” in CitationWesseling, Certain Ideas, 153–5.
130. CitationTerrier, Visions, xi–xxi.