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Abstract
Although the Congress of Vienna was not a main topic for political caricature, it was anything but ignored. During the first five months of 1815, while monarchs and diplomats were deliberating on Europe’s future, caricaturists in Great Britain, France and the German-speaking states depicted the Congress as a major or minor subject in 20 satirical prints. Together these caricatures provide a multi-perspectival view of the way contemporaries assessed the diplomatic deliberations taking place in Vienna. To obtain an insight into this important part of contemporary public opinion on the Congress, the corpus of graphic satire was submitted to close scrutiny in two ways. Firstly, a context analysis ascertained the artists who produced them; how the prints were published and brought to public attention; and for what audiences they were intended. Secondly, a content analysis explored the political messages that the caricatures on the Vienna Congress tried to convey and the persuasive techniques that were applied to visualise these points of view. Notwithstanding different national origins and opposite political views, the message is a negative one: the satires denounce the territorial greed of the Great Powers and their disregard for the demands and aspirations of the peoples they seek to incorporate.
Acknowledgements
This article is a revised and expanded version of an unpublished paper presented at the conference ‘Vienna 1815: the Making of a European Security Culture’ in Amsterdam on 5–7 November 2014. I would like to thank the journal’s anonymous reviewers for critically reading the manuscript and suggesting substantial improvements. I am also grateful to Professor Marjolein ’t Hart and Dr Chris Grayson for their useful comments on an earlier draft.
Notes
1. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 553.
2. For instance the British satirical prints: Political Dandies [or] A Kiss at the Congress, a caricature on the Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle by William Heath (18 November 1818) [BM 13007]; The Secrets of Trop-peau disclosed, or the Imbecille Alliance of Tyranny to Crush the Universal Spirit of Liberty defeated, a caricature on the Congress of Troppau by William Heath (30 January 1821) [BM 14113]; A hasty Sketch at Verona, or the Prophecies of Napoleon unfolding, a caricature on the Congress of Verona by John Lewis Marks (10 February 1823) [BM 14501]; The Holy Alliance Unmasked, a caricature (presumably) on the Congress of Verona by Edward Purcell (February 1823) [BM Museum Number: 1985,0119.103].
3. I prefer to reserve the term ‘cartoon’ for post-mid-nineteenth-century satirical imagery. See the discussion on the use of this term in: Moores, Representations of France, 1–2.
4. The Troelfth Cake / Le Gâteau des Rois, an allegory on the First Partition of Poland in 1772 by Noël Le Mire (1773) [BNF, Hennin 9401]. See also: The Polish Plumb-Cake, a caricature by John Lodge on the same subject (August 1774) [BM 5229].
5. The Plumb-pudding in Danger, a caricature on the partition of the world between Great Britain and France by James Gillray (26 February 1805) [BM 10371]. Africa as a cake in A Chacun sa Part, a cartoon on the Berlin Conference (1884/1885) in L’Illustration, January 1885, and China as a cake in En Chine: Le Gâteau des Rois et... des Empereurs, cartoon by Henri Meyer in the Sunday Supplement to Le Petit Journal, 16 January 1898.
6. A hasty Sketch at Verona, or the Prophecies of Napoleon unfolding, a caricature on the Congress of Verona by John Lewis Marks (10 February 1823) [BM 14501]. Conférence de Londres, a caricature on the London Conference of 1830/1831 by Honoré Daumier (1832).
7. Cf. Coupe, “Observations,” 80: “The frequency of the political cartoon is proportionate to the ‘conflictfulness’ of a given epoch.”
8. Three recent examples: Franklin and Philp, Napoleon and the Invasion of Britain (2003); Bryant, Napoleonic Wars in Cartoons (2009); and Clayton and O’Connell, Bonaparte and the British (2015).
9. Another important general study is: Donald, Age of Caricature (1996). Three recent examples of thematic studies: Hunt, Defining John Bull (2003); Kremers and Reich, Loyal Subversion? (2014); and Moores, Representations of France (2015). Two examples of caricaturists’ biographies: Hill, Mr. Gillray (1965) and Patten, Cruikshank’s Life (1992).
10. Of a more general nature, and not limited to German caricature, are the exhibition catalogues: Mathis, Napoleon I. im Spiegel der Karikatur (1998) and Cilleßen et al., Napoleons neue Kleider (2006).
11. Other, more recent, French publications on anti-Napoleon caricatures are the exhibition catalogue by Fau-Vincenti and Lafon, Napoléon … Aigle ou Ogre? (2004), and Bertaud et al., Napoléon, le Monde et les Anglais (2004).
12. There are only very few exceptions to this conclusion: De Waresquiel (Talleyrand, 105–10) devotes attention to four caricatures featuring Talleyrand at the Vienna Congress. Moores (Representations of France, 100–1) discusses four prints featuring the Congress in relation to Napoleon’s return from Elba. Lentz (Nouvelle histoire, 74) and Vick (Congress of Vienna, 84) briefly mention some caricatures.
13. Cf. Lucie-Smith, Art of Caricature, 7–19; cf. Sherry, “Four Modes of Caricature,” 39–46; cf. Atherton, Political Prints, 33–8; Streicher, “On a Theory,” 435–7; cf. Coupe “Observations,” 87; cf. Moores, Representations of France, 2–3.
14. Not included for this reason were, for instance, the two caricatures by Jean-Baptiste Gauthier l'aîné, La Balançoir (May 1815) [BNF, De Vinck, 8064] and Le Tapecu (Spring 1815) [BNF, De Vinck 8065], Saint Phal’s (?) print, Souvenirs de 1815: Le Destin de la France (Spring 1815) [BNF, Hennin 13726], and Thomas Rowlandson’s satire Scene in a new Pantomime to be Performed at the Theatre Royal Paris (12 April 1815) [BM 12528].
15. Not included is Johann Michael Voltz, Wir delibriren, ob wir die Stiefel wichsen oder schmieren [Deutsches Historisches Museum Berlin: Gr 90/34.63], a print of which, on the authority of Voltz’ biographer Karl Hagen (Maler Johann Michael Voltz, 37, 66), is asserted in many publications that it caricatures the Congress of Vienna. Quite wrongly though, as it actually is a satire on the municipal councils in post-Congress Germany (cf. Drugulin, Historischer Bilderatlas, 138; cf. Böhmer, Welt des Biedermeier, 49–50). Furthermore, this print has to be dated long after the Congress was dissolved. The picture on the wall, next to the window, shows a giant Napoleon on Saint Helena. On this island, recognisable by its characteristic dual hills, the former Emperor was imprisoned from 15 October 1815 until his death on 5 May 1821. Not included either was the well-known French satire La Restitution, ou Chaqu’un [sic] son compte [BNF, De Vinck 9335], that does not represent the Vienna Congress, as is often alleged, but depicts in fact (the preliminaries of) the First Peace of Paris, and must therefore be dated in the Spring of 1814.
16. Not included for this reason was, for instance, the anonymous German caricature Soll er los gelassen werden? (c. July 1815) [BNF, Hennin 13672].
17. The satirical print by the American William Charles, The Congress at Vienna in Great Consternation (Spring 1815) [BL-CC, b.11(113)], was not included, because it is more an allegory than a caricature. It is inspired by the allegory on the First Partition of Poland by Le Mire. See above note 4.
18. Not included for this reason were, for instance, the French prints Grand Dieu, C’est Lui!!, in two variations (Spring 1815) [BNF, De Vinck 9517 and 9518].
19. Cf. Streicher, “On a Theory,” 433: “The caricature is meant for mass reproduction from the beginning.” Not included for this reason were, for instance, two anonymous German satires, namely the watercolour Titelvignette zu den Acten des Wiener Congresses (De la Garde, Gemälde des Wiener Kongresses, 2) and the coloured drawing Westliche Ansicht von Teutschland [sic] und den Congress, in Jänuar 1815 (January 1815) [Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna: Pk 5001]. Déclarations du Congrès de Vienne, 13 et 15 Mars 1815 (1815) [BNF, De Vinck 9524], being the frontispiece to a book, was also left out, because of its potentially narrow audience.
20. General search terms used relate to the genre (e.g. “caricature”, “satire”) or the kind of event (e.g. “congress”, “conference”). Specific query terms relate to the period (“1814” and “1815”), geographical locations (e.g. “Vienna”, “Elba”) and individually named persons (e.g. “Tsar Alexander”, “Castlereagh”, “Talleyrand”). These key words were applied in multiple combinations, in English, French and German. Queries on the name of individual artists could not be made, as they were not known in advance. Evidently, “Napoleon” or “B(u)onaparte” did not seem suitable search terms, as the French Emperor dominates most satirical prints of the time.
21. Other online public collections queried were: the Napoleonic Satires Collection in the Brown University Library Center for Digital Scholarship in Providence (Rhode Island), the Digital Images Collection of the Lewis Walpole Library at Yale University, the Bildarchiv und Grafiksammlung of the Österreichische Nationalbibliothek in Vienna, the Objektdatenbank of the Deutsches Historisches Museum in Berlin and the digital image database of the Rijksmuseum in Amsterdam.
22. Le Cabinet noir ou: Les Pantins du 19eme Siècle [13] is only mentioned in the passing by Broadley (Napoleon in Caricature II, 67–8) and might easily be overlooked. La Balance de l’Europe rétablie au Congrès de Vienne en 1815 [17] is not included in the De Vinck and Hennin Collections in the Bibliothèque nationale de France in Paris and was only fortuitously found by searching the internet.
23. Clark, Zeitgeist and Zerrbild, 29, 46, 59.
24. Endliches Schiksaal, an allegory on the Congress of Vienna by Friedrich Rosmäsler junior from Hamburg (before March 1815) [BM 12320]. The remark by Reynst (Friedrich Campe, 43) on an allegory featuring the Congress of Vienna that one can only comprehend by consulting some encyclopedias, most likely refers to this print.
25. Clark, Zeitgeist and Zerrbild, 29. An example is the realistic allegory by Johann Michael Voltz, Der neue Bund […], geschlossen zu Wien den 13n März, als die Nachricht von Buonapartes Landung in Frankreich eintraf (Spring 1815) [BNF, Hennin 13694].
26. An illustration of this difference in approach is to be found in Romanticism and Caricature (2013) by Ian Haywood, a representative of the literary studies. In his book (p. 6) the author compliments historians for the “excellent job of surveying and organising this voluminous field of popular political imagery”. But, as their “main interest is in the extent to which graphic satire records or distorts historical events”, he criticises the same historians for their lack of “close reading and intensive analysis that is normally accorded to ‘serious’ works of art.”
27. Cf. Hill, Mr. Gillray, 118–23.
28. Goldstein, Censorship of political Caricature, 97–101; Duprat, “Guerre des Images,” 490; Hautecœur, “Famille de Graveurs,” 272, 278, 298–9.
29. Clark, Zeitgeist and Zerrbild, 71–2.
30. Broadley, Napoleon in Caricature I, 54–9; Donald, Age of Caricature, 3–5; Clayton, “London Printsellers,” 150–1; Hunt, Defining John Bull, 15.
31. Three of the 10 British prints were published by the low-price City firms of John Johnson in Cheapside [3], Whittle & Laurie in Fleet Street [6] and John Fairburn in Ludgate Hill [9]. Cf. Clayton, “London Printsellers,” 152–3; cf. Donald, Age of Caricature, 20.
32. Hautecœur, “Famille de Graveurs,” 266–70; Clayton and O’Connell, Bonaparte and the British, 48. Cf. Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 47–8.
33. Reynst, Friedrich Campe, 23–36.
34. Donald, Age of Caricature, 4; Hautecœur, “Famille de Graveurs,” 295. The Nuremberg publisher Campe was such a staunch admirer of Napoleon, that in 1808 he even named his eldest son after him. Four years later, after the Emperor’s fatal Russian campaign, he began to publish anti-Napoleon caricatures, “for, after all, he was an entrepreneur” (Reynst, Friedrich Campe, 30, 42, 46). Cf. Hagen, Maler Johann Michael Voltz, 32.
35. The discussion on whether early nineteenth-century caricatures not only reflected contemporary public opinion but could also influence their audiences is aptly summarised in: Moores, Representations of France, 13–17. See also: Donald, Age of Caricature, 44; Hunt, Defining John Bull, 17, 19; Streicher, “On a Theory,” 442–3; Coupe, “Observations,” 82–4; Hill, Mr. Gillray, 114; Vick, Congress of Vienna, 84.
36. Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 102, 107.
37. Bryant and Heneage, Dictionary of British Cartoonists, 150–2, 238–9.
38. Rosset, Siècle d’histoire, 173–4; George, Catalogue, 505–6; cf. Guillard, “Origines des Danses.” The authorship of the two Forceval prints [11, 12] can be ascertained by the small crayfish with which this artist used to sign his work (De Waresquiel, Talleyrand, 110). For the identification of the caricature by G. Bein [13]: Laran, Inventaire, 25. The authorship of the Gauthier print [16] and of what is most likely a satire by Saint-Phal [14] was established by analogy with the caricatures by these artists shown in Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon. See below note 48.
39. Cf. De Waresquiel, Talleyrand, 110: “La caricature [en France] était encore considérée à l’époque comme un genre mineur. Les artistes ne signaient pas leurs pièces de leur nom, sinon de leurs initiales ou d’un signe de convention. Cet anonymat ne facilite pas les recherches.” Cf. Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 46–7.
40. Der Congress (February 1815) is actually a semi-caricature. The three monarchs present in Vienna are drawn in a highly realistic manner. The only element of caricature is seen in the background, where a tiny Napoleon on his Mediterranean rocklet, is observing the deliberations with a huge telescope (Scheffler and Scheffler, So zerstieben getraeumte Weltreiche, 140). See also above note 25.
41. A nineteenth-century biography: Hagen, Maler Johann Michael Voltz; Reynst, Friedrich Campe, 38–40.
42. Broadley, Napoleon in Caricature I, 49; Donald, Age of Caricature, 4, 25–7; Clayton and O’Connell, Bonaparte and the British, 21–2, 48; Evans and Evans, Man who Drew, 22; Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 51.
43. Reynst, Friedrich Campe, 37–8, 39–40, 44, 46. The quotation, translated from German, is on p. 39.
44. Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 78–9. Cruikshank characterised this hack work as ‘the washing of other people’s dirty linen’ (quoted by Hill, Mr. Gillray, 138).
45. Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 78; cf. Hill, Mr. Gillray, 64 note 1.
46. Patten (George Cruikshank’s Life I, 118) mentions the names of several people who, in the decade 1814–24, supplied Cruikshank with ideas for his prints.
47. Hagen, Maler Johann Michael Voltz, 33.
48. See the anti-Napoleon caricatures by Saint-Phal, the presumed author of Le Gâteau des Rois [14], in Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 211, 262, 272, and those by Jean-Baptiste Gauthier l’aîné, the author of La Bouillotte [16], ibidem, 138, 215, 239, 259 290, 297. Cruikshank, who in his younger years had the reputation of being a “Radical” (Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 122), also worked for employers of various political affiliations, as the “independent or Whiggish” periodical The Scourge, the “middle-of-the-road” publisher S.W. Fores and the “increasingly conservative” publisher Mrs Humphrey (Wardroper, The Caricatures, 14). Cf. Evans and Evans, Man who Drew, 22: Cruikshank’s political convictions “like his talent, were at the bidding of anyone who chose to employ him”.
49. On The Scourge see: Sullivan, British literary Magazines, 388–91 and Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 101. On Le Nain jaune see: Serna, La République des Girouettes, 195–9 and Goldstein, Censorship of Political Caricature, 101–4.
50. Donald, Age of Caricature, 1; Nicholson, “Consumers and Spectators,” 11.
51. Clayton, “London Printsellers,” 154–61; Donald, Age of Caricature, 20–1; Hunt, Defining John Bull, 16–17.
52. Donald, Age of Caricature, 5, 7; Hunt, Defining John Bull, 12–13; Hautecœur, “Famille de Graveurs,” 271. Nicholson (“Consumers and Spectators,” 16–17, 19) critically relativises the impact of the print-shop window display.
53. Donald, Age of Caricature, 66–73; Clayton and O’Connell, Bonaparte and the British, 24–5; Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 123; Reynst, Friedrich Campe, 30–1. Cf. Nicholson, “Consumers and Spectators,” 17: “… most political satires were not intended for, and therefore made few concessions to, a ‘popular’ audience. ‘Most were characterized by allusive’ iconography and complex formal ‘reading structures’.”
54. Cf. George, Catalogue, xxxvi: “Comparatively few of the satires on the return from Elba are simple prints on that theme; they combine with it ridicule of the Congress …”
55. In the first version of this print, the person on the far right is a woman, wearing a doge-like cap. It is an allegorical representation of the Republic of Genoa, the former city-state that the Congress finally allotted to the Kingdom of Sardinia (cf. Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 87). Thus, the text above her head reads: “Elle saute pour le Roi de Sardaigne.” In the second version this figure is depicted in exactly the same way; only its head is replaced by that of Joachim Murat, the King of Naples. De Waresquiel (Talleyrand, 110) seems inclined to date the first version in the last weeks of 1814. George (Catalogue, 506) argues, more plausibly, that the first version was probably published in January 1815.
56. De Waresquiel, Talleyrand, 106; Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 352–6.
57. Athanassoglou-Kallmyer, Eugène Delacroix, 96.
58. Hill, Mr. Gillray, 124–32. At the end of his life, in 1842, Cruikshank commented as follows on the way he once caricatured Napoleon: “As for me, who have skeletonised him prematurely, paring down the Prodigy even to his hat and boots, I have but ‘carried out’ a principle adopted almost in my boyhood, for I can scarcely remember the time when I did not take some patriotic pleasure in persecuting the great Enemy of England” (George Cruikshank’s Omnibus, 28).
59. Feaver, Masters of Caricature, 57; Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 54, 81. Cf. Hill, Mr. Gillray, 130.
60. George, Catalogue, 526; Broadley, Napoleon in Caricature I, 378.
61. George, Catalogue, 515. These verses are signed with the initials “S.M.B.”
62. Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 96, 124–5.
63. Coupe, “Observations,” 93.
64. In Cruikshank’s The Fox & the Goose [6] the returning Napoleon has the body of a fox, while the representatives of the four Great Powers in Vienna are geese with human heads. In The Phenix of Elba resuscitated by Treason [10] the mythical bird Phoenix is portrayed with Napoleon’s head.
65. Cf. Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 71.
66. In Le Gâteau des Rois [14] there is also a verbal allusion to his clubfoot. Talleyrand, hiding under the conference table, exclaims ambiguously: “Cachons nous, je suis sur un vilain pied ici bas … ” (George, Catalogue, 523).
67. Scheffler and Scheffler, So zerstieben getraeumte Weltreiche, 140. Cf. Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 74.
68. Cf. Duprat, “Guerre des Images,” 493.
69. One print, Twelfth Night [2], dates from before the Hundred Days and shows Louis XVIII as a mere spectator in the theatre box.
70. From July 1814 to February 1815, Frederick Augustus I was held in Prussian captivity in Schloß Friedrichsfelde near Berlin. After his release, the Austrian Emperor invited him to reside in Pressburg, 65 kilometres from Vienna, where several delegates at the Congress deliberated with him. In May he moved to Schloß Laxenburg, only 20 kilometres from Vienna The personal representative of the Saxon King at the Congress was Von der Schulenburg-Klosterroda (Blank, Der bestrafte König?, 140, 189, 246–8, 255).
71. Cf. Clerc, Caricature contre Napoléon, 95. Mark’s satire The European Pantomine [5] is also inspired by the stock characters of the commedia dell’arte. As in Bein’s Le Cabinet noir [13], Napoleon features here as “Harlequin” and Louis XVIII as an infuriated “Pantaloon”. Furthermore, Napoleon’s second wife, Marie Louise, appears as “Columbine”, while, according to the caption, the representatives at the Congress of Vienna are represented as “Clowns” (George, Catalogue, 518–19).
72. Cf. Guillard, “Origines des Danses.”
73. Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 115–18.
74. See above note 55.
75. In response to the invitation, Blücher reportedly replied: “Was soll ich da bei all’ den Maulfechtern und Federhelden, die nach Ländern angeln, im Trüben fischen und hin und her krebsen, und der bunte Bund des einigen Deutschlands uneinig ist; da würden mir nur wieder die Glacés platzen und die Fausthandschuhe …” (quoted by Scheffler and Scheffler, So zerstieben getraeumte Weltreiche, 140).
76. Kerchnawe and Veltzé, Feldmarschall Karl Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, 232.
77. Russia’s principal plenipotentiary at the Congress of Vienna was Nesselrode. However, it was generally known that in important affairs “it is the Emperor himself who does all.” Nesselrode “remained in the background and could only serve his sovereign – when the Emperor’s confidence permitted – as his secretary or diplomatic spokesman” (Grimsted, The Foreign Ministers, 210, 225).
78. The assertion of De Waresquiel (Talleyrand, 108) that “cette caricature est sans doute la plus exacte” of the prints featuring the Congress of Vienna, disregards the many historical errors La Balance politique [19] contains. The same is true for the “Explication de la Caricature”, included in the May 15 issue of Le Nain jaune (pp. 191–2). In it, for example, the five monarchs of the Great Powers in the background are incorrectly described as “plusieurs souverains subalterns”, and the man in the green uniform, who is seen from the back, is identified as “l’autocrate des knoutés”, a derogatory epithet for Tsar Alexander I.
79. Apparently, the news that Wellington no longer headed the British delegation since 29 March 1815 had not yet reached the author of this print, six weeks later.
80. In the case of Nesselrode, the caricaturist, noticeably, lacked the documentation to portray him accurately. This must be the reason why the Russian plenipotentiary is seen from the back, without showing his face. It might also explain why the civilian Nesselrode is incorrectly wearing an army uniform.
81. In the four British caricatures mentioned above in note 2, Metternich is only portrayed in A hasty Sketch at Verona by John Lewis Marks.
82. Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 390–2; Jarrett, Congress of Vienna, 119–25. Cf. Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 73–4: “Rares étaient les journaux du temps qui publiaient des analyses et des commentaires sur les négociations et les questions traitées. […] Parce que les débats internes n’étaient pas connus, on broda, on s’impatienta, on brocarda, puis on se lassa du congrès.” Nicolson (Congress of Vienna, 182–3) points out that British Parliamentary Opposition was also unaware of the exact proceedings in Vienna.
83. Bruguière du Gard, Déclaration de l'Empereur de Russie, 95.
84. George, Catalogue, 514–5, 532–3.
85. Rosset, Siècle d'histoire, 180; Broadley, Napoleon in Caricature II, 62–3.
86. Rosset, Siècle d'histoire, 179; George, English Political Caricature, 158; Broadley, Napoleon in Caricature II, 64.
87. George, English Political Caricature, 158. Cruikshank’s print is most likely inspired by The Polish Plumb-Cake, a caricature on the First Partition of Poland by John Lodge (August 1774) [BM 5229]. The anonymous French print Le Paté indigeste [15] is more or less a variation on this metaphor. The monarchs of the four Great Powers are ready to carve a huge pie – with no names of disputed territories inscribed – from which, to their obvious surprise, a small Napoleon emerges (George, Catalogue, 521). Hence, the main theme of this caricature is not so much the territorial greed of the Big Four as Napoleon’s unexpected return from Elba, which abrubtly disturbed the negotiatons in Vienna.
88. Although not a subject of dispute at the conference table, there is also a reference to the British interests in Hanover in Williams’ Amusement at Vienna [1] and in Cruikshank’s The Phenix of Elba [10] (George, Catalogue, 504–5, 536).
89. A less explicit allusion is also to be found in La Balance politique [19], where a bale inscribed ‘Belgique’ stands close to Wellington and John Bull. Probably, this is not without a reason (George, Catalogue, 541).
90. Clayton and O’Connell, Bonaparte and the British, 46, 158. Cf. Hautecœur, “Famille de Graveurs,” 278–82, 288–95.
91. Cf. Broadley, Napoleon in Caricature II, 67.
92. George, Catalogue, 523. After Napoleon reseized power in Paris, in March 1815, the British subsidies to pay for the armies the Allies brought into the field were reinstated (Sherwig, Guineas and Gunpowder, 332–9). For this reason, the Crown Prince of Sweden, in Cruikshank’s Boneys [sic] Return from Elba [7], seems rather pleased seeing the French Emperor suddenly reappear. With a grin on his face, he says: “This looks like another subsidy” (George, Catalogue, 515).
93. Dufey, Europe et la France, 62.
94. Bruguière du Gard, Déclaration de l'Empereur de Russie, 63.
95. The suggestion made in La Balance politique [19] that British money was used to settle diplomatic disputes in Vienna is not without ground: e.g. Jarrett, Congress of Vienna, 135, 146, 419 note 166.
96. George, Catalogue, 541; Le Nain jaune, 15 May 1815, p. 192.
97. George, Catalogue, 506–7; Zöllner, Wiener Kongress, 155.
98. Shortly afterwards, during the Hundred Days, “radical caricatures [would once again] emphasize the burdensome’ costs of resuming military operations” (Patten, George Cruikshank’s Life I, 105).
99. George, Catalogue, 504–5; idem, English Political Caricature, 159; De Waresquiel, Talleyrand, 109; Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 74.
100. George, Catalogue, 521; Moores, Representations of France, 101.
101. George, Catalogue, 532.
102. “Peter Pindar” is the pseudonym of the literary satirist John Wolcot (1738–1819).
103. Quoted by Nicolson, Congress of Vienna, 183. Another Whig M.P. spoke of “the monstrous proceedings of the Robbers at Vienna” (quoted by George, Catalogue, xxxv, 492).
104. George, Catalogue, 491.
105. De Waresquiel, Talleyrand, 107; Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 387, 420, 561–2; Lentz, Nouvelle histoire, 88–9; Nicolson, Congress of Vienna, 146–7; Jarrett, Congress of Vienna, 115–6, 130–1.
106. Le Nain jaune, 20 January 1815, p. 73.
107. De Waresquiel, Talleyrand, 107; Zamoyski, Rites of Peace, 386. Cf. the Bonapartist pamphlet from May 1815 by Bruguière du Gard, Déclaration de l’Empereur de Russie, 85: “[Les souverains de l’Europe] ont traités les peuples comme de vils troupeaux, en les comptant âmes par âmes [emphasis mine] comme sur un marché d’animaux.” Cf the Bonapartist pamphlet by Dufey, Europe et la France, 62: “… les distributions des âmes par le Congrès de Vienne …”
108. Le Nain jaune, 15 May 1815, p. 192.