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Abstract:
In many ways, the Council of Europe paved the way for European Community (EC) action in local and regional affairs. It was the first European organisation to establish a conference of local and regional authorities in 1957, in which local actors and associations were represented and tried to influence the shaping of European regional policies. This article analyses the links between the Council of Europe and the EC in the development of regional policies from the 1970s to the 1990s by focusing on three transmission vectors: through institutional cooperation between the two European organisations; through competitive bargaining among local and regional groups; and through intensive lobbying at EC level. It argues that the transfer of ideas was not so much achieved through cooperation between the organisations’ experts or political committees but rather by means of transregional networking promoting the idea that local and regional authorities had to be associated with the elaboration and implementation of European regional policy. From 1988, these networks shifted their attention away from the Council of Europe towards the EC because of the possibility to receive direct funding from the European Commission.
Notes
1. Archives of websites of the DG Regio, European Commission, Cohesion policy 2014–2020, on: http://ec.europa.eu/regional_policy/archive/what/future/index_en.cfm, 2.2.2015. See Wassenberg and Reitel, Territorial Coo peration in Europe, 30–42
2. Bauer, Der Europarat nach der Zeitenwende 1989–1999, 103, see also Wassenberg, History of the Council of Europe, 135.
3. For the Committee of the Regions see Warleigh, The Committee of the Regions: Institutionalizing Multi-Level Governance?, 7; for the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities see Wassenberg, Histoire du Conseil de l’Europe (1949–2009), 427.
4. Mainly the Association of European Border Regions (AEBR), the Conference on Peripheral Maritime Regions (CPMR) and the Conseil des Communes d’Europe (CCR). For the lobbying of these groups see Ramirez, ‘Cross-Border Lobbying: The Association of European Border Regions (AEBR) Activities with the European Union’, 283–97. For a typology of inter-organizational links between the Council of Europe, the EC and other organizations, see Patel, ‘Provincialising European Union’.
5. See Guerra, Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe.
6. ACE, Consultative Assembly (CA), Demand for the Inscription to the Order of the Day of the Session, Doc. 85, 29 November 1951; Report on the Creation of a Specialized Authority on Local and Regional Affairs, 26 September 1952, Doc. 89; Resolution 20, 27 September 1952.
7. See Wirsching, Demokratie und Globalisierung.
8. ACE, CA, Resolution 76 on the Convocation of a Conference of Representatives of National Associations of Local Authorities from the Member States, 14 October 1955; ACE, Conference of Local Authorities (CLA), Minutes of the Debates of the 1st Session, 17 January 1957. See Meyer, Le Conseil de l’Europe et la Région (1957–1962).
9. Wassenberg and Beck, Living and Researching Cross-Border Cooperation (Volume 3), 300–2 (Conclusion).
10. See Marx, EG-Regionalpolitik, Fortschritt und Stagnation im Spannungsfeld von Integrationsziel und nationalstaatlichen Interessen, 158–60.
11. Pinto, ‘Accompagner les mutations de l’Europe centrale et orientale’, 53–63; Courcelle, Le Conseil de l’Europe, enjeux et représentations, 122.
12. See 50 Years of Local and Regional Democracy, 7.
13. ACE, CA, Report on International and National Bodies of Local Authorities and Studies on their Own Means to Involve these Bodies and the Local Authorities Themselves in the Diffusion of the European Idea, Doc. 210, 23 September 1953.
14. Treaty of Rome, Preamble, 25 March 1957.
15. ACE, CLA, Report on the Local Problems Created by the Creation of the Common Coal and Steel Market and the ESCE Activities, 17 January 1957, 15–16; Report on the Local Incidences of European Economic Integration, 29–31 October 1958.
16. Clout, Blacksell, King and Pinder, Western Europe: Geographical Perspectives, 203–5.
17. ACE, CLA, Resolution 1 on the Creation of a Special Committee, 17 January 1957.
18. Meyer, Le Conseil de l’Europe et la Région (1957–1962), 60.
19. ACE, CLA, Report ‘Santero’, 29–31 October 1958, 137.
20. ACE, CLA, Resolution 9 on the Participation of Local Authorities in the Establishment and the Activities of European Institutions, 29–31 October 1958.
21. ACE, CA, Resolution 20 on the Charter of the European Conference of Local Authorities, 25 January 1960; Recommendation 120 on the Charter of the European Conference of Local Authorities, 28 September 1960.
22. Fischer, ‘Vierzig Jahre Europarat – Vom gescheiterten Föderator zum kreativen Trainingscenter’, 119–26.
23. Wassenberg, History of the Council of Europe, 71– 2.
24. Maschke, ‘30 Jahre Europarat, Rückblick und Perspektiven’, 161.
25. Deyon and Rémond, Régionalismes et régions dans l’Europe des quinze, Conseil de l’Europe, Les institutions régionales et la régionalisation dans les États membres.
26. Archives of the European Commission (AEC), BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Notice to the Directorate General for External Relations on the participation of M. Van der Kelk in the expert group on demographic regional problems, 2 December 1968; Information notice by the European Commission on the session of the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe on spatial planning 12–16 May 1969, 23 May 1969.
27. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Notice to Mr. Sigrist, Director General on External Relations on a joint meeting of the Commission and the General Secretariat of the Council, 27 October 1969.
28. For the decision of the Committee of Ministers to organize this conference, see ACE, CM, Minutes of the Committee of Minister’s Meeting, December 1968.
29. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Notice on a meeting between the European Commission and the General Secretariat of the Council of Europe (Strasbourg-June 1971) on the contribution of the General Directorate on Regional Policy, 15 March 1971.
30. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Letter to the President of the European Commission Sicco Mansholt by the Secretary General of the Council of Europe, Lujo Toncic-Sorinj, 20 October 1972.
31. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Notice to Mr. Sigrist, Directorate General for External Relations on the Letter of the Council of Europe of 6 February 1973, 7 March 1973.
32. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Letter to Mr. Locatelli in the Council of Europe by J. Van Ginderachter, 6 November 1973.
33. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 48, 1968–1975, Draft intervention by Mr. Camier addressed to the Directorate of Environment and Spatial Planning of the Council of Europe, 30 September 1974.
34. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982, Notice by Mr. Camier on the Committee of Cooperation of the Council of 11–12 December 1975, 24 December 1975.
35. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982, Notice by Mr. G. De Freye, DG Regional Policy to Mr. Renicki on the participation of the Council of Europe in the activities of the Regional Policy Committee, 9 April 1979.
36. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982, Notice to Emile Noël, Secretary General, by Pierre Mathijsen, Directorate General for Regional Affairs, 12 June 1981.
37. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982, Notice to Roy Denman, Director General for External Relations, by Pierre Mathijsen, Directorate General for Regional Affairs, 2 June 1980.
38. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982, Report by H. Quigly to Mr. Renicki, Wäldchen, Van Gindernachter, Lenarduzzi, Messina, Boisdequin on the Meeting of Council’s Steering Committee on Regional and Municipal Matters of 20–21 May 1981, 1 June 1981.
39. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982. See letters of invitation by the Council of Europe on 9 September 1980, 1 October 1980, 13 October 1980, 31 October 1980, without response by the Commission.
40. AEC, BAC 86/1989, N° 49, 1975–1982, Notice by van Ginderachter to Mr. Wäldchen on the activities of the Council of Europe followed by the services of the DG XVI, 25 May 1980.
41. Wassenberg, Histoire du Conseil de l’Europe, 586.
42. Ibid., 310.
43. Cf. COE, Bureau of Treaties, Madrid Convention 1980 and Charter of Local Self-Government 1985.
44. Mainly the Conseil des communes d’Europe (CCE), the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA) and the Forengen Norden, cf. interview with Ulrich Bohner, high-ranking civil servant in the Council of Europe in the Department for Spatial Planning and Regional Affairs (1972–2009), Secretary General of the Conference of Local and Regional Authorities, 25 May 2014, cf. also Guerra, Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe, 72.
45. De Rougemont, Vers une fédération des régions, 1968 and Lettre ouverte aux Européens, 1970.
46. In 1970, 15 ‘ordinary’ regions were formed in Italy, three regions in Belgium and, in 1972, the so-called Etablissements régionaux publics were set up in France.
47. Malchus, Partnerschaft an europäischen Grenzen, 15.
48. Ibid.
49. Interview with Jens Gabbe, Secretary General of the AEBR (1987–2006), 8 June 2014.
50. AEBR, 30 ans de travail en commun, 17.
51. Wassenberg, ‘Qu’est-ce qui motive la coopération transfrontalière dans l’espace franco-germano-suisse?’, 95–117.
52. See Pierret, La face cachée de l’Union, 97–8.
53. For example ACE, CLA, ‘Problèmes de l’organisation politique des pouvoirs locaux européens et des régions européennes’, Communication by Fernand Dehousse, 31 October 1968; ACE, CLA, ‘Message’ by Jacques Chaban-Delmas, French Prime Minister, 26–30 October 1970.
54. De Rougemont, Lettre ouverte aux Européens, 183–4.
55. See Ruge, Die Erfindung des ‘Europa der Regionen’; ACE, CLA, Report on the Role of Local Authorities in the Framework of the Council of Europe’s Mission in the Near Future, 25–29 September 1972, 3.
56. ACE, the Parliamentary Assembly, supports this demand: see Recommendation 694 Concerning the 9th Session of the CLA, 24 January 1973.
57. ACE, CLA, Resolution 74 Concerning the Role of Local Authorities in the Framework of the Council of Europe’s Mission in the Near Future and the Development of Activities of the EC in the Spheres of Competence of Local and Regional Authorities, 25–29 September 1972.
58. ACE, CLA, Resolution 76 Concerning the Role of the Conference of Local Authorities in Europe Today, 16–20 September 1974, 16–20 September 1974.
59. The Charter for the institutionalization of the Conference had been adopted on 13 September 1961, ACE, CM, Resolution 61/20, 13 September 1961.
60. Council of Europe, 50 Years of Local and Regional Democracy.
61. Noël, ‘La Conférence des régions périphériques maritimes d’Europe. Une initiative originale pour une politique régionale européenne’, 267–9.
62. Interview with Jens Gabbe; AEBR, 30 ans de travail en commun, 6; ‘Die AGEG’, 26.
63. Interview with Jens Gabbe; ACE, Conference of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe (CLRAE), Report on Cross-Border Cooperation in Europe, CPL (15) 6 Final, 23 May 1980, 52.
64. Ibid.
65. ACE, CA, Proposal for a recommendation on cooperation between border regions presented by Mr. Weber, 29 January 1969.
66. ACE, CA, Ahrens, Karl, Report on the European Confrontation of Border Regions, Doc. 2876, 5 January 1971, 4.
67. Malchus, Die Zusammenarbeit europäischer Grenzgebiete, Stand der Frage und jüngste Entwicklung, Basisbericht für das 1. Europäische Symposium der Grenzregionen.
68. Malchus, Die Zusammenarbeit europäischer Grenzgebiete, Basisbericht für das 2. Europäische Symposium der Grenzregionen.
69. ACE, CM, Reports Presented at the Second Meeting of the European Ministers in Charge of Local Authorities, CME/Loc (76) 28, 1976.
70. ACE, CA, Opinion on the Framework Convention on Cross-Border Cooperation, Doc. 4420, 1979.
71. Series of European Treaties n° 106, entered into force on 22 December 1981.
72. Interview with Jens Gabbe.
73. Wassenberg, La coopération transfrontalière franco-germano-suisse dans l’espace du Rhin-supérieur de 1975 à 2000. Vers une eurorégion?, 149.
74. Noël, ‘La Conférence des régions périphériques maritimes d’Europe. Une initiative originale pour une politique régionale européenne’, 265.
75. Pierret, La face cachée de l’Union, 189.
76. Interview with Ulrich Bohner.
77. Ibid.
78. Guerra, Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe, 108.
79. ACE, CLA, ‘Problèmes de l’organisation politique des pouvoirs locaux européens et des régions européennes’, Communication by Fernand Dehousse, 31 October 1968.
80. Interview with Ulrich Bohner.
81. ACE, CLA, Resolution 74.
82. Cf. ACE, CLA, Follow-up by the Committee of Ministers and the Consultative Assembly of the Resolutions of the 9th Session of the Conference, 16–21 September 1974; Letter by Piombini to Rudolf Kirchschläger, president of the Committee of Minsters, 14 June 1974, Doc CPL (10) 4.
83. ACE, CLA, Opinion 18 on the Relations Between the Conference and the EC, 16–20 September 1974.
84. ACE, CM, Resolution 4 on the Amendment of the European Charter of Local Authorities, 19 February 1975.
85. Cf. ‘Première Convention des autorités régionales de l’Europe périphérique’, 9–14.
86. ACE, CLRAE, Aide-mémoire on the Conferences of Local and Regional Authorities of Europe by G. van der Auwera, Division XVI-A-1, 23 January 1978.
87. Guerra, Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe, 198; see Assembly of European Regions (AER), Régions d’Europe, 8.
88. Together with the Committee of Alpine Regions and the Pyrenees Community.
89. Guerra Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe, 209; See AER, Régions d’Europe, 9.
90. Interview Ulrich Bohner.
91. ACE, CLRAE, Opinion 17 on the Regional Policy of the European Economic Community, 16–20 September 1974, 3.
92. Guerra, Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe, 204.
93. Ibid.
94. ACE, CLRAE, Resolution 89 on the Regional Policy of the Member States of the Council of Europe and European Institutions, 24–26 May 1977.
95. AEC, Proposal for Future Orientation of the Regional Policy, 3 June 1977.
96. ACE, CLRAE, Resolution 108 on the Regional Policy of the Member States of the Council of Europe and European Institutions, 16–18 October 1979, 6.
97. Guerra, Les régions au Conseil de l’Europe, 207; Déclarations adoptées lors des Conférences européennes organisées par la CPLRE (ou avec son concours) 1970–1985.
98. Wassenberg, History of the Council of Europe, 130.
99. Les voix de l’Europe : 1949–1996, 161. See Rey, ‘Europe is Our Home’, 33–65.
100. Dremzewski, Andrew, ‘Programmes de coopération et assistance du Conseil de l’Europe aux pays d’Europe centrale et orientale dans le domaine des droits de l’homme: 1990-Septembre 1993’, 195.
101. Interview with Jens Gabbe.
102. Wassenberg, History of the Council of Europe, 131.
103. See interview with Jean Peyrony, former expert at the DG Regio, European Commission, 25 May 2015; Wassenberg, La coopération transfrontalière franco-germano-suisse dans l’espace du Rhin-supérieur de 1975 à 2000, 313.
104. AEC, EC Decision n° 2025/88 of the Council, OJEC L185, 14 June 1988.
105. Mestre, ‘La Communauté économique européenne et le développement de la coopération transfrontalière’, 63.
106. Interview with Jean Peyrony; Interview with Patrice Harster, head of the PAMINA Eurodistrict in the Upper Rhine Region and responsible for the setting-up of the first Interreg pilot-project PAMINA in 1990, 16 September 2015.
107. Engel, ‘Europa der Regionen’, 148.
108. Interview with Ulrich Bohner.
109. Interview with Jens Gabbe.
110. Archives of the Association for European Border Regions (AEBR), Minutes of the annual meetings 1985–1988.
111. See Beck, Netzwerke in der transnationalen Regionalpolitik, Rahmenbedingungen, Funktionsweise, Folgen, 110.
112. Interview with Jean Peyrony.
113. Europe 2000. Les perspectives de développement du territoire communautaire.
114. AEBR, Minutes of the Annual Meeting 1989.
115. AEBR, Minutes of the Annual Meetings 1985–1988.
116. Interview with Jens Gabbe: see AEBR position paper on cross-border cooperation 1988 and Communication C(90) 1562/3 to the Member States Fixing the Orientations for Operational Programmes in the Framework of a Community Initiative on Border Regions (INTERREG), OJEC n° C215/4, 30 August 1990.
117. AEBR, 25 ans de travail en commun, 22.
118. Beck, Netzwerke in der transnationalen Regionalpolitik. Rahmenbedingungen, Funktionsweise, Folgen, 119.
119. Interview with Patrice Harster.
120. AEC, Communication C(90) 1562/3 to the Member States Fixing the Orientations for Operational Programmes in the Framework of a Community Initiative on Border Regions (INTERREG), OJEC n° C215/4, 30 August 1990.
121. Speech by Michel Barnier, European Commissioner in Les 10 ans d’INTERREG.
122. AEBR, pilot-project LACE, 1990, draft proposal.
123. Wassenberg, Histoire du Conseil de l’Europe, 397.
124. ARA, Les 10 ans d’INTERREG, brochure, Région Alsace, mai 2000.