The ‘participationnist state’ and the ‘apathetic citizen’: Educationalizing the ‘problem of non–voting’ in postwar Switzerland (1940s–1970s)

ABSTRACT

Should citizens be educated into voting? Is non-voting a ‘problem’ for democracies, and, if yes, can it be educationalized? This article examines public debates on non-voting and its ‘educationalization’ in post-war Switzerland, in order to analyse the renegotiation of citizenship norms and ideals at a time when the priority of voting over other, non-institutional forms of political participation was increasingly contested. With a longstanding emphasis on (male) citizens’ participation in institutional politics, Switzerland as a ‘participationist state’ is an interesting case study to observe tensions surrounding participation and its promotion among citizens. After the Second World War, Swiss political elites had already reinforced their efforts to cultivate voting as a ‘civic duty’ among young men, as they feared a weakening of the ‘citizen-soldier’ ideal. With the further rise and associated problematization of non-voting in the 1960s and 1970s, attempts to curb this phenomenon through educational measures peaked, but encountered latent or open resistance. The difficulties (or the impossibility) of educationalizing non-voting thus revealed a growing disconnect between the dominant (and gendered) framing of non-voting as a manifestation of an unacceptable passivity to be ‘cured’ by educational measures, and the demand for forms of political participation other than voting articulated by the 1968 social movements. Ultimately, these debates exemplify a series of key tensions in contemporary democracies. The first is the tension between inclusion and exclusion, from the late enfranchisement of women in 1971 to the still-unsettled question of the political role of non-citizen residents. The second is the contested prioritization of voting in relation to other forms of participation. Third and finally, the focus on promoting voting as a ‘civic duty’ collided with the recurrent search for a balance between rights and duties within citizenship, and, linked to that, between emancipatory and paternalist dynamics in attempts to ‘mould’ citizens.

KEYWORDS:

• Citizenship
• education
• Switzerland
• vote
• inclusion
• participation

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the editors of this special issue, Phillip Wagner and Till Kössler, the participants at the ‘Creating the Democratic Self: Democracy, Citizenship and Education in Europe’s Twentieth Century’ workshop, the anonymous reviewers and my colleagues at the German Historical Institute of Paris for their very helpful comments. Finally, I would like to thank Paul Reed for his thoughtful proofreading. Any remaining mistakes are mine.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. Swiss Federal Statistical Office, Nationalratswahlen: Beteiligung. This article presents the first results of an ongoing research project about the history of electoral participation in France, Germany and Switzerland after 1945.

2. “Wir brauchen ein regierungsfähiges und regierungswilliges Volk.”

3. Barraud, “Abstentionnisme”; and “Instruction civique.”

4. Hodgson, “The Educationalisation of Social Problems and the Educationalisation of Educational Research.”

5. De Jong, Civic Education and Contested Democracy, 16 in particular.

6. For instance, Print and Milner, eds., Civic Education and Youth Political Participation; and Manning and Edwards, “Does Civic Education for Young People Increase Political Participation?”

7. Rayner, “Participationnisme d’État”; Voutat, “Suisse: réflexions sur les droits politiques et la citoyenneté”; and Kurunmäki and Herrmann, “Birthplaces of Democracy.”

8. Gilcher-Holtey, “Political Participation and Democratization in the 1960s”; for Switzerland, Skenderovic and Späti, Die 1968er-Jahre in der Schweiz.

9. Pateman, Participation and Democratic Theory.

10. Paltieli, “Between Realism and Relevance.”

11. Müller, Contesting Democracy; Conway, Western Europe’s Democratic Age.

12. Zimmermann, “Klassenkampf und Klassenkompromiss”; Burgos et al., La formule magique. On the beginnings of these processes during the war years: Jost, Politik und Wirtschaft im Krieg.

13. Tanner, Geschichte der Schweiz im 20. Jahrhundert. Leemann, “Political Conflict and Direct Democracy.”

14. De Jong, Civic Education and Contested Democracy; and Buttier and De Mestral, “D’hier à aujourd’hui, former des citoyen.ne.s engagé.e.s en France et en Suisse romande.”

15. Lister et al., “Introduction,” 11.

16. Eberle and Imhof, Sonderfall Schweiz; Kergomard, Wahlen ohne Kampf; in school textbooks Kaufmann, “Des manuels scolaires au service du Sonderfall helvétique (1911–2011).”

17. Isin and Nielsen, Acts of Citizenship; and Neveu, “E pur si muove!”

18. For a review, Kergomard, “Moments of Democratic Evaluation?”; for Switzerland see Herrmann and Lengwiler, “Façonner les comportements citoyens”; Schorderet, “Elire, voter, signer.”

19. Déloye and Ihl, L’acte de vote; Malkopoulou, The History of Compulsory Voting; for an overview of compulsory voting laws in Swiss cantons see Schwegler, “Motivstrukturen unter Stimmzwang,” 7–8.

20. See the introduction to Garrigou, Le Vote et la vertu.

21. For instance Dalton, “Citizenship Norms and the Expansion of Political Participation”; and Braconnier and Dormagen, La démocratie de l’abstention.

22. Moser et al., Zur Geschichte der politischen Bildung; Quakernack, Politische Bildung in der Schweiz; Lötscher et al., Reader – Was soll politische Bildung?; Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen; about history in Swiss schools, Kaufmann, “Des manuels scolaires au service du Sonderfall helvétique (1911–2011)”; and De Mestral and Heimberg, “L’enseignement de l’histoire en Suisse romande.”

23. The press corpus is drawn from digitized newspapers via a keyword search and from press clippings on topics such as ‘citizenship education’ and ‘elections’ curated by the Swiss Social Archives (SSA); see Kergomard, “A Source like any Other?” In the following all translations into English are from the author.

24. Bourdieu, Ce que parler veut dire.

25. “A la Ligue du Gothard. La Suisse de demain.”

26. See note 1.

27. Lustenberger, Pädagogische Rekrutenprüfungen.

28. Imhof, “Wiedergeburt der geistigen Landesverteidigung”; and Buomberger, Die Schweiz Im Kalten Krieg.

29. Statistisches Amt des Kantons Zürich, Die Nationalratswahlen 1943 im Kanton Zürich, 280.

30. Ludi, “Gendering Citizenship and the State in Switzerland After 1945”; and Voegeli, Zwischen Hausrat und Rathaus.

31. Erhard and Deonna, Die Stimmenthaltung als staatspolitische Gefahr.

32. Statistisches Amt des Kantons Zürich, Die Nationalratswahlen 1943 im Kanton Zürich, 270, 275, 267, 265.

33. Moser et al., Zur Geschichte der politischen Bildung, 107–20; Criblez and Hofstetter, “Erziehung zur Nation”; Metz, “Das schweizerische Schulwandbilderwerk in den 30er und 40er Jahren”; and Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen, 130–61.

34. About reformist debates after 1945 in French-speaking Switzerland, Quakernack, Politische Bildung in der Schweiz, 48–54.

35. Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen, especially 301.

36. Exposition itinérante ‘Examens civiques des recrues’, 1953–1954, quoted in Lustenberger, Pädagogische Rekrutenprüfungen, 194.

37. Kägi, Direkte Demokratie in Gefahr? 6; Woodtli, Erziehung zur Demokratie, 24; see Moser et al., Zur Geschichte der politischen Bildung, 133–4; Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen.

38. Imhof et al., “Geistige Landesverteidigung.”

39. Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen, 249–53, 301–3.

40. Kadelbach, Swiss Made; and Hodler, “Unsere jungen Ambassadoren.”

41. Ebbertz, “Die schweizerische ‘Männerdemokratie’ als ‘Exportartikel’?”

42. About the older focus on ‘experiencing the Republic’, see Tanner, “Vom unmündigen Volk zu den überforderten BürgerInnen.”

43. Kägi, Direkte Demokratie in Gefahr? 31.

44. Zurich Cantonal Archives, Ao 2/2 1947, Booklet “Du, Vater … ? Freisinnig, Liste 5,” 1947.

45. Steiner, Die Beziehungen zwischen den Stimmberechtigten und den Gewählten, 61.

46. Bosshart, “Staatsbürgerliche Erziehung unserer Jugend”; about earlier suffragist views on the educational role of mothers, Chaponnière, Devenir ou redevenir femme, 67–70.

47. Holenstein, “Äusserer Stand”; SSA, Zeitungsartikel 14.3, Jugendparlamente.

48. About similar ceremonies in Germany and in the Netherlands, Mandret-Degeilh, “Gouverner par le rite,” 350–6; De Jong, Civic Education and Contested Democracy, 57–60.

49. “Promotions civiques,” quoted in Csupor et al., “Scène et coulisses,” 6. About the emergence of these ceremonies in German-speaking Switzerland, Ebbertz, “Ein Übergangsritual für die ‘naïve Demokratie’?”

50. “Promotions civiques.”

51. Csupor et al., “Scène et coulisses,” 7.

52. Hafner, Zürcher Bürgerinnen- und Heimatbuch.

53. Imboden, Helvetisches Malaise, 6; and Kreis, Das ‘Helvetische Malaise.’

54. Duc, “La participation civique est-elle contestée?” 104.

55. Kreis, “Lancierung der Totalrevision.”

56. Imboden, “Die Volksbefragung in der Schweiz.”

57. König, “Politik und Gesellschaft,” 82.

58. Kergomard, Wahlen ohne Kampf, 209–14.

59. König, “Rasanter Stillstand und zähe Bewegung,” 163.

60. Skenderovic, The Radical Right in Switzerland.

61. Eisenegger, “Alte und neue Einflussmöglichkeiten sozialer Bewegungen.”

62. About the complex relationship of the Swiss new feminist movement to female suffrage, Schulz et al., Frauenbewegung, esp. 42.

63. Kergomard, Wahlen ohne Kampf, 355–6.

64. Giugni and Passy, Histoires de mobilization politique en Suisse.

65. Skenderovic and Späti, Die 1968er-Jahre in der Schweiz.

66. Wisler, Drei Gruppen der Neuen Linken, 73–89.

67. “Scharfe Worte gegen eine Totalrevision der Bundesverfassung.”

68. “Über das Wochenende.”

69. SSA, 5093-Zd-329, Zürcher Manifest, handwritten poster, September 4–9, 1968.

70. Bircher, “Das Problem des Stimmzwangs im Kanton Aargau.”

71. Rebetez, “Comment en vient-on à refuser le service militaire en Suisse.”

72. Gros, Dissidents du quotidien, 12–15.

73. Buomberger, Die Schweiz Im Kalten Krieg; and Skenderovic, “Die Neue Rechte in der Schweiz: der lange Weg einer Gegenbewegung.”

74. Löffler, “Zivilverteidigung.”

75. Ruffieux, “Le Canton de Vaud et les élections fédérales.”

76. Redaktion und Verlag Vaterland, “Morgen beginnt für die Luzerner Frauen die politische Gleichberechtigung.”

77. About similar, albeit earlier processes after the introduction of female suffrage in other Western European countries, Denoyelle, “Des corps en élections”; Sneeringer, Winning Women’s Votes; Kaal, “Appealing to the Female Vote.”

78. Kergomard, “An die Urnen, Schweizerinnen!”

79. Testmarkt AG Zürich, Die Frau an den Nationalratswahlen, annexe, 3.

80. Amlinger, Im Vorzimmer der Macht, 342–4.

81. Although the alleged influence of women over their husbands’ vote had been a frequent (and partially antifeminist) trope in popular culture before female suffrage, Anatole du sexe fort, La semaine de la femme, March 20, 1948, quoted in Ruckstuhl, Vers la majorité politique, 126.

82. From 1960 onwards, there efforts were helped by the “Foundation for civic education and training” (“Stiftung für staatsbürgerliche Erziehung und Schulung”). See Ruckstuhl, Vers la majorité politique, 121–123; Chaponnière, Devenir ou redevenir femme, esp. 67–79; 175–192.

83. Amlinger, Im Vorzimmer zur Macht?

84. Bund der Schweizerischen Jungkonservativen und Jungschristlichsozialen, Frauenstimmrecht.

85. Even suffragists had to contend with this reproach, “A voté! Fribourg.”

86. Swiss Federal Archives, E1010B#1986151#606, Federal Chancellery, Ausübung der politischen Rechte 1971, Sitzung der Arbeitsgruppe für die Herausgabe einer politischen Einführungsschrift für die Frauen, April 26, 1971.

87. Schweizerische Bundeskanzlei, “Die politischen Rechte der Schweizerin und des Schweizers.”

88. Götz and Grieder, “Grünes Licht für Eva,” 34.

89. Ibid., 8–13.

90. Generalsekretariat der Christlichdemokratischen Volkspartei der Schweiz, Topfgucker.

91. Kergomard, “‘Eduquer’ les nouvelles citoyennes?”; in Lucerne, for instance, Lucerne State Archives, Private Archive 1331/19, Civic Association of Catholic Women, Frauenzentrale – Schulungskurse für die Luzerner Stimmbürgerinnen.

92. “Wikons Frauen lassen sich orientieren.”

93. Amlinger, Im Vorzimmer zur Macht?

94. Spector and Kitsuse, Constructing Social Problems.

95. Schalcher and Schalcher, “Aktivierung der schweigenden Mehrheit”; Weber, “Postulat Weber-Arbon. Stimmbeteiligung”; and “Verbesserung der staatsbürgerlichen Bildung?”

96. Neidhart and Hoby, Ursachen der gegenwärtigen Stimmabstinenz in Schweiz.

97. Sidjanski, Les Suisses et la politique.

98. Eggly, “Elections fédérales”; and De Diesbach, “L’avenir de l’armée suisse.”

99. Bühler, Jugend beobachten, 72, 263.

100. “Instruction civique.”

101. Moser et al., Zur Geschichte der politischen Bildung, 134–41; Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen, 331–5; and De Mestral and Heimberg, “L’enseignement de l’histoire en Suisse romande.”

102. Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen, 368–420.

103. Letter from Peter Herr, general secretary of the Pro Dialog foundation to Federal Councillor Hans Hürlimann, November 27, 1974, Swiss Federal Archives, Federal Chancellery, E3001B#1979/121#1352, Starthilfe für die Jugendzeitschrift ‘Dialog’, 1974–1975.

104. Blum, “Der ‘Hofer-Club.’”

105. About these networks, Frischknecht, Haffner, Haldimann, and Niggli, Die unheimlichen Patrioten: Politische Reaktion in der Schweiz: Ein aktuelles Handbuch mit Nachtrag 1979–1984. 6. Zürich: Limmat Verlag, 1987, particularly 498.

106. Letter from Peter Herr, general secretary of the Pro Dialog foundation to Federal Councillor Hans Hürlimann, November 27, 1974, Swiss Federal Archives, Federal Chancellery, E3001B#1979/121#1352, Starthilfe für die Jugendzeitschrift ‘Dialog’, 1974–1975.

107. Swiss Federal Archives, J2.328-01#2011/192#32, Stiftung Dialog Korrespondenz, 1976–1980.

108. Schweiz. Eidgenössisches Justiz- und Polizeidepartement, ed. Massnahmen zur Erhöhung der Stimm- und Wahlbeteiligung in der Schweiz.

109. “Auflösung des letzten Jugendparlamentes.”

110. “Chaotischer Abend im Zürcher Kongresshaus.”

111. “Jungbürgerfeier Burgdorf.”

112. As when the city of Geneva invited the French resistant Stéphane Hessel following his book Time for Outrage, Indignez-vous (2011); Csupor et al., “Scène et coulisses,” 14.

113. Csupor et al., “Scène et coulisses,” 10.

114. Blatter, “Kritik der schweizerischen Demokratie.”

115. Diezi, “Regard. Le mutisme du citoyen.”

116. Reichenbach and Oser, Zwischen Pathos und Ernüchterung; Ritzer, Der Kalte Krieg in den Schweizer Schulen, 307–8; and Waldis, “Demokratietheorie und Erziehungsideal.”

117. Buttier and De Mestral, “D’hier à aujourd’hui, former des citoyen.ne.s engagé.e.s en France et en Suisse romande.”

118. Haeberli, “Les conseils d’enfants en Suisse.”

119. Gay, “Les fonctions sociales de l’apprentissage de la citoyenneté.”

120. “10 Franken Busse droht.”

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Zoé Kergomard

Zoé Kergomard is a senior lecturer at the University of Zurich. Her current research project dwells on the history of electoral participation as a democratic challenge in France, Germany and Switzerland after 1945. She defended her PhD about the history of election campaigns in post-war Switzerland in 2018 at the University of Fribourg, Switzerland.