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ABSTRACT
What role does associational activism play in political life in the Middle East and North Africa? Have associations been largely co-opted, thus reinforcing authoritarian governance? Or are they part of drawn out democratization processes, emerging over the last two decades, exploding during the Arab Spring? Divergences in responses to these questions have been striking. From initial optimism about the potential of associations to contribute to democratization, much recent literature has been increasingly pessimistic, framing associations as part of the problem of failed political transformations. Algeria, in particular, despite minimal donor funding, has seen a surge in associations over the last 20 years. Yet, these 93,000 new associations have come under scrutiny. Building on extensive fieldwork, this article explores Algerian associations at grass-roots level, after the decade of violence in the 1990s. It analyses how associations challenged the state during the Arab Spring, how they question historical state narratives and challenge government policies. Despite political and structural obstacles, it is found that Algerian civic associations do not inhibit democratic society, indeed they enable it, not necessarily as transformative actors, but as meaningful democratic agents pushing for reform.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Note on contributor
Jessica Ayesha Northey is a Research Associate with the Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations at the University of Coventry, UK.
ORCID
Jessica Ayesha Northey http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3509-3086
Notes
1. Ibn Khaldun in the fourteenth century, Alexis De Toqueville in the nineteenth century, and current debates since the 1990s.
2. See Härdig, “Beyond the Arab Revolts.”
3. Over 93,000 associations were registered in 2012, Ministry of Interior figures: www.interieur.gov.dz/Dynamics/frmItem.aspx?html=1&s=29 for national associations and http://www.interieur.gov.dz/Dynamics/frmItem.aspx?html=2&s=29 for local associations. Accessed 20 November 2015.
4. Figures vary significantly for Moroccan associations. Cavatorta and Durac cite figures between 30,000–80,000; ICNL indicated the figure as unknown in 2012. Personal interviews with donor funded programme managers in Rabat (October 2011) indicated 35,000 but that it is “very difficult to have correct figures.”
5. Cavatorta and Durac, Civil Society and Democratization.
6. Ibrahim, “The Troubled Triangle”; Zoubir, “The Stalled Democratisation of an Authoritarian Regime.”
7. Ben Nefissa, Pouvoirs et Associations; Ibrahim, “The Troubled Triangle.”
8. Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria; Wiktorowicz, “Civil Society as Social Control.”
9. Roberts, The Bouteflika Presidency.
10. Cavatorta and Elananza, “Political opposition in Civil Society.”
11. See Cavatorta and Durac, Civil Society and Democratization, 27.
12. Nabila Amir, “Les députés relèvent des ambigüités et des atteintes à la liberté d'association”, El Watan Newspaper, 28/11/2011.
13. Bozzo and Luizard, Les Société Civiles dans le Monde Musulman.
14. Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?”
15. Ibid., 723.
16. Ibrahim, “The Troubled Triangle,” 374.
17. Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?” 724.
18. See Jamal, Barriers to Democracy, 4.
19. See Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria.
20. Tocqueville, Democracy in America.
21. Jamal, Barriers to Democracy, 4; Kubba, “The Awakening of Civil Society”; Diamond, “Toward Democratic Consolidation.”
22. Cavatorta and Durac, Civil Society and Democratization, 12.
23. Ibid., 12.
24. Wiktorowicz, “Civil Society as Social Control”; Langhor, “Too Much Civil Society, Too Little Politics.”
25. Jamal, Barriers to Democracy, 6.
26. Ibid., 7.
27. Ibid., 9.
28. Cavatorta and Durac, Civil Society and Democratization.
29. Ciftci and Bernick, “Utilitarian and Modern.”
30. Glenn, Framing Democracy, 21–3.
31. Abu Saada and Challand, Le développement, une affaire d'ONG?
32. Schmitter, Some Propositions about Civil Society and the Consolidation of Democracy, 6
33. Ibid., 16.
34. Filali-Ansary, “State, Society and Creed,” 309.
35. Ben Nefissa, Pouvoirs et Associations, 17.
36. Addi, “Les obstacles à la formation de la société civile.”
37. Derras, Le Phénomène associatif, 21.
38. Driessen, Religion and Democratization, 144.
39. Salhi, L'Algérie.
40. Kazemi and Norton, quoted in Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 5.
41. Zoubir, quoted in Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 5.
42. Zoubir, “The Algerian Crisis in World Affairs,” 27.
43. Ben Nefissa, Pouvoirs et Associations.
44. See Willis, “Containing Radicalism”, for how similar radicalization processes were manipulated by other North Africa regimes so as to maintain power.
45. Driessen, Religion and Democratization, 159.
46. The “Green Alliance” of Islamist political parties suffered heavy losses in the 2012 elections.
47. In particular within the CNCD, which will be explored in the following section.
48. Lloyd, “Organising Across Borders,” 484.
49. Ibid., 484.
50. Associations such as SOS disparus, the Algerian League of Human Rights and Djazairouna in particular.
51. The 2005 Reconciliation Charter focuses on compensation rather than truth for victims of the conflict and makes it an offence to criticize the Algerian army's role in it.
52. Cavatorta and Durac, Civil Society and Democratization, 5.
53. Ibid., 33.
54. 93% of Algerians think that democracy is the best form of government according to the World Values Survey as quoted in Driessen, Religion and Democratization.
55. See Volpi, Islam and Democracy, 135.
56. See Härdig, “Beyond the Arab Revolts”, for a discussion and typology of different civil society coalitions and movements in Egypt and Lebanon.
57. See http://www.jeuneafrique.com/181370/politique/alg-rie-la-cncd-appelle-la-destitution-de-bouteflika/ Accessed 13 August 2015.
58. See blog by Boumara (February 2011): http://ffs1963.unblog.fr/2011/02/25/pourquoi-je-demissionne-de-la-coordination-nationale-pour-le-changement-et-la-democratie/ Accessed 7 November 1014.
59. Interview with EU Delegation official, Algiers, 18 October 2011.
60. Interview with members of Bel Horizon, Oran, 28 October 2011.
61. The Law n°12-06 of 12 January 2012, Official Journal of the Algerian Republic, n°2, 15 January 2012, 28.
62. Interviews with associations in the PCPA network meetings in Tipaza 29/11/2011.
63. Draft Law on Associations, September 2011, 3.
64. http://forumdesdemocrates.over-blog.com/article-la-mort-programmee-du-mouvement-associatif-96322992.html Accessed 7 November 2014.
65. www.elwatan.com/actualite/les-deputes-relevent-des-ambiguites-et-des-atteintes-a-la-liberte-d-association-28-11-2011-148916_109.php Accessed 7 November 2014.
66. Interview with the President of Association Nour, Oran, 24/10/2011.
67. Schmitter, Some Propositions about Civil Society and the Consolidation of Democracy.
68. Glenn, Framing Democracy.
69. See Salhi, L'Algérie; Derras, Le Phénomène associatif.
70. Derras, Le Phénomène associatif, 34.
71. See www.interieur.gov.dz/Dynamics/frmItem.aspx?html=2&s=29 for the breakdown of national associations in Algeria. Accessed 13 August 2015.
72. See McDougall, History and the Culture of Nationalism in Algeria.
73. See http://www.oran-belhorizon.com/ for footage of the events.
74. Quoted in the special edition of Bel Horizon's bulletin “10 ans au service du patrimoine”, 12, 14/04/2005 and in interviews with the author, 2011.
75. Association APPAT in Tiaret, Association Santé Sidi El Houari in Oran, Association Castellum in Chleff and Association Archeologique of Tenes all reported this to be one of the motivations for the activism.
76. Such as Mouloud Salhi of the Association Etoile Culturelle of Akbou in Kabylia, the association also created a guide to setting up a Communal Youth Council http://pcpalgerie.org/?L-association-ECA-publie-le-guide Accessed 13 August 2015.
77. See Cavatorta and Elananza's discussion of Djazairouna and SOS Disparus in “Political Opposition in Civil Society.”
78. Djazairouna, SOS Disaprus and the Algerian Human Rights League in particular.
79. Boucebci Foundation Objectives, www.fmboucebci.com Accessed 13 August 2015.
80. Interview with the Boucebci Foundation, Project leader Malika Ghebbi, 16/10/2011.
81. Interview with a psychologist in the FMB, Algiers, 16/10/2011.
82. Interview with a psychologist in the FMB, Algiers, 16/10/2011.
83. Interview with the Boucebci Foundation, Project leader Malika Ghebbi, 16/10/2011.
84. Interview with the President of the FAPH, Attika El Mamri, 29/10/2011
85. Such as https://ajouadmemoire.wordpress.com/qui-sommes-nous-2/ collective for families of the victims of terrorism of the 1990s.
86. As was seen in the two associations in Oran.
87. See Lloyd, “Organising Across Borders.”
88. Ibid.
89. Volpi, Islam and Democracy, 135.