http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9484-8701
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Abstract
Recent research on civil society in authoritarian regimes shows that civil society can contribute to legitimating authoritarian rule. This finding has not, however, been connected with the nascent literature on authoritarian regime legitimation. This article seeks to bridge this gap by synthesizing the relevant theoretical literature and presenting an in-depth comparative analysis of Algeria and Mozambique. We argue that in both cases the ruling authoritarian regime has used civil society as a legitimation tool. The article identifies five patterns according to which authoritarian regimes can use civil society for legitimation purposes.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
ORCID
Jasmin Lorch http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9484-8701
Notes
1 Gerschewski, “The Three Pillars of Stability”; Köllner and Kailitz, “Comparing Autocracies”; for recent studies on authoritarian regime legitimation see for example Burnell, “Autocratic Opening to Democracy”; Hoffmann, “The International Dimensions of Authoritarian Legitimation”; von Soest and Grauvogel, “Comparing Legitimation Strategies”; Kailitz, “Classifying Political Regimes Revisited.”
2 Kailitz and Köllner, “Zur Autokratieforschung der Gegenwart,” 25.
3 Cavatorta, Civil Society Activism; Dimitrovova, “Re-shaping Civil Society in Morocco”; Giersdorf and Croissant, “Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism”; Froissart, “The Ambiguities between Contention and Political Participation”; Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State”; Lorch, “Civil Society under Authoritarian Rule”; Perinova, “Civil Society in Authoritarian Regimes”; Spires, “Contingent Symbiosis and Civil Society”; Petrone, “Institutionalizing Pluralism in Russia”; Wiktorowicz, “Civil Society as Social Control”; Wischermann, Civic Organizations; Ziegler, “Civil Society, Political Stability, and State Power.”
4 See especially Froissart, “The Ambiguities between Contention and Political Participation”; Giersdorf and Croissant, “Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism”; Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State”; see also Petrone, “Institutionalizing Pluralism in Russia.”
5 See especially Croissant, Lauth, and Merkel, “Zivilgesellschaft und Transformation”; see also Bailer, Bodenstein, and Finn Heinrich, “What Makes Civil Society Strong?”
6 For example Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?”
7 For example Northey, “Associations and Democracy in Algeria,” 1.
8 See for example Manning and Malbrough, “Foreign Aid and Democracy”; Mozambique News reports and clippings. Accessed 5 September 2016. http://www.open.ac.uk/technology/mozambique/news-reports-2016-0.
9 For a brief overview see the CIA World Fact Book. Accessed 2 February 2015. https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook.
10 On Algeria see expert interviews: academics, Algiers, 24 March–1 April 2014; on Mozambique see O’Meara, “Collapse of Mozambican Socialism,” 82.
11 Ottaway, The Rise of Semi-Authoritarianism, 1–10.
12 See for example Levitsky and Way, “Rise of Competitive Authoritarianism.”
13 See for example Cohen and Arato, Civil Society and Political Theory.
14 See for example Chabal and Daloz, Africa Works, 17–22.
15 Eberlei, “Wirkungen und Erfolgsbedingungen zivilgesellschaftlicher Arbeit,” 4.
16 Lewis, “Civil Society in African Contexts,” 583.
17 Eberlei, “Wirkungen und Erfolgsbedingungen zivilgesellschaftlicher Arbeit,” 5.
18 For example: Dimitrovova, “Re-shaping Civil Society in Morocco,” esp. 526; Lorch, “Civil Society under Authoritarian Rule”; Petrone, “Institutionalizing Pluralism in Russia,” 177–184.
19 Wiktorowicz, “Civil Society as Social Control”; Petrone, “Institutionalizing Pluralism in Russia,” 168.
20 Spires, “Contingent Symbiosis and Civil Society,” 5–10.
21 See for example Lorch, “Civil Society under Authoritarian Rule.”
22 Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State.”
23 Kailitz, “Classifying Political Regimes Revisited,” 46.
24 Giersdorf and Croissant, “Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism.”
25 Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State,” 329.
26 Burnell, “Autocratic Opening to Democracy,” 549, 555–561; Hoffmann, “The International Dimensions of Authoritarian Legitimation.”
27 Wiktorowicz, “Civil Society as Social Control,” 43; see also Dimitrovova, “Re-shaping Civil Society in Morocco.”
28 Froissart, “The Ambiguities between Contention and Political Participation,” 220.
29 For a summary of the survey results see for example Doldova, Grauvogel, and von Soest, “How do Autocrats Legitimate their Rule?”
30 Carothers and Brechenmacher, Closing Space.
31 Giersdorf and Croissant, “Civil Society and Competitive Authoritarianism”; Froissart, “The Ambiguities between Contention and Political Participation”; Wiktorowicz, “Civil Society as Social Control.”
32 Teets, Civil Society under Authoritarianism, 36.
33 See note 31 above; see also Petrone, “Institutionalizing Pluralism in Russia,” 178, 182–184.
34 Chang, Chu, and Welsh, “Southeast Asia,” esp. 151.
35 Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State,” 328; Lorch, “Civil Society under Authoritarian Rule”; Spires, “Contingent Symbiosis and Civil Society.”
36 Burnell, “Autocratic Opening to Democracy,” esp. 549; Doldova, Grauvogel, and von Soest, “How do Autocrats Legitimate their Rule?”; Gerschewski, “The Three Pillars of Stability.”
37 Lorch, “Civil Society under Authoritarian Rule”; Spires, “Contingent Symbiosis and Civil Society.”
38 Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State,” 329; Dimitrovova, “Re-shaping Civil Society in Morocco,” 528–529.
39 Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State,” 329; see also Dimitrovova, “Re-shaping Civil Society in Morocco,” 528–529; and Petrone, “Institutionalizing Pluralism in Russia,” on this point.
40 See especially Doldova, Grauvogel, and von Soest, “How do Autocrats Legitimate their Rule?”; see also Kailitz, “Classifying Political Regimes Revisited.”
41 Levitsky and Way, “The Durability of Revolutionary Regimes,” 9.
42 Bustos, “Economic Liberalization and Political Change,” 2–5.
43 Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?,” 731–732; Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 27–28.
44 Terranova, B., “Algeria: The Obstacles to Democracy,” e-International Relations, 13 August 2011. Accessed 2 February 2015. http://www.e-ir.info/author/brian-terranova/.
45 For example Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?,” 732–733; ICNL, NGO Law Monitor: Algeria, 2012. Accessed 2 February 2015. http://www.icnl.org/research/monitor/algeria.html; Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 1–22;
46 Human Rights Watch, Algeria: Crackdown on Independent Trade Unions, 2013. Accessed 19 February 2015. http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/10/06/algeria-crackdown-independent-trade-unions.
47 Expert interview: journalist, Oran, 11 September 2014; see also Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 83–95.
48 ICNL, NGO Law Monitor: Algeria.
49 Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 83–95.
50 Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?”; Northey, “Associations and Democracy in Algeria.”
51 Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria.
52 Ibid., 29–67.
53 Quotation from newspaper (L’Expression, 25 December 2004), after Goutali, “Bouteflika implique la société civile.”
54 Algerian Ministry of the Interior, “Associations.” Accessed 2 February 2015. http://www.interieur.gov.dz/Dynamics/frmCategories.aspx?htmls=6&s=29.
55 Liverani, Civil Society in Algeria, 31–67.
56 Expert interview, Algiers, 17 September 2014.
57 Expert interview: local academic, Algiers, 14 September 2014.
58 Expert interview: Touiza, Algiers, 11 June 2014.
59 Butcher, “Can Oil-reliant Countries Democratize?,” 734–735; Northey, “Associations and Democracy in Algeria,” 8.
60 Interview: LADDH, Algiers, 11 March 2015.
61 Expert interview: CNES, Algiers, 18 September 2014.
62 Expert interview: journalist, Oran, 11 September 2014.
63 Expert interviews: journalist, Oran, 11 September 2014; local academic, Algiers, 14 September 2014.
64 Interview: CNES, Algiers, 13 March 2015.
65 Expert interview: local academic, Algiers, 14 September 2014.
66 Interview: CNES, Algiers, 18 September 2014.
67 Expert interview: local academic Algiers, 14 September 2014.
68 Ibid.
69 Interviews Algiers: CNES, 18 September 2014; SEVE, 17 September 2014.
70 Expert interview: civil society expert, Algiers, 17 September 2014.
71 Interviews: SDH, Oran, 14 June 2014; Solidarité AIDS, Algiers, 10 March 2015.
72 Interviews: SDH, Oran, 14 June 2014; photo documentation public SDH campaigns.
73 Interview: SMA, Algiers, 2 June 2014, 6 October 2014; Zohor, Oran, 8 June 2014.
74 Interview: CNES, Algiers, 18 September 2014.
75 Expert interview: local academic, Algiers, 14 September 2014.
76 Interview: Ouassila, Algiers, 19 June 2014.
77 Interview: TFNS, Algiers, 10 June 2014.
78 Interview: TFNS, Algiers, 13 March 2015.
79 Northey, “Associations and Democracy in Algeria,” esp. 10–12.
80 Interviews: UNFA, Algiers, 14 September 2014; SEVE, Oran, 15 July 2014.
81 Interviews: FARD, Oran, 2 July 2014, 7 July 2014.
82 See for example Geffray, A Causa das Armas.
83 For further details see for example Abrahamsson and Nilsson, Mozambique; Serra, Moçambique.
84 Expert interviews Maputo: Member of Parliament (MP), 29 July 2014; Instituto de Estudos Sociais e Económicos (IESE), 15 December 2014.
85 See for example Manning and Malbrough, “Foreign Aid and Democracy.”
86 See for example Sogge, “The Civil Sector.”
87 Fiege, “Zivilgesellschaft in Mosambik,” 118.
88 See note 84 above; Weimer, Macuane, and Buur, “Economia do Political Settlement.”
89 Expert interviews Maputo: MP, 29 July 2014; Universidade Eduardo Mondlane (UEM) 2, 15 December 2014; Beira: German International Cooperation, 31 July 2014.
90 Expert interviews Maputo: Centro de Integridade Pública (CIP), 26 March 2014; IESE, 15 December 2014.
91 Fiege, “Zivilgesellschaft in Mosambik,” 106.
92 Ibid., 124; Expert interviews Maputo: UEM_1, 7 August 2014; IESE, 15 December 2014.
93 Expert interview: CIP, Maputo, 26 March 2014.
94 Interviews Maputo: PJ, 8 July 2014; FORUM Mulher, 9 July 2014.
95 Interviews Maputo: CCM, 22 May 2014; OJM, 28 May 2014; Conselho Islâmico de Moçambique (CIM), 29 May 2014; Associação de Mulheres Empreendedoras, 30 May 2014; Associação Moçambicana de Economistas, 23 and 27 June 2014; Beira: Mulher Lei e Desenvolvimento, 5 June 2014; Sindicato Nacional de Journalistas (SNJ), 6 July 2014.
96 Interview CCM; Maputo, 22 May 2014.
97 Interviews Maputo: CIM, 29 May 2014; Empresários contra SIDA (ECOSIDA), 3 June 2014; Beira: FOPROSA, 26 May 2014; SNJ, 6 July 14.
98 Interview: FOPROSA, Beira, 26 May 2014.
99 Expert interviews Maputo: UEM_1, 7 August 2014; IESE, 15 December 2014.
100 Interview: CTA, Maputo, 18 March 2015.
101 Expert interview: ACIS, Beira, 20 March 2015.
102 Interview: FOPROSA, Beira, 26 May 2014.
103 Interviews Maputo: FORUM Mulher, 9 July 2014; UEM_1, 7 August 2014; UEM_2, 15 December 2014.
104 Interviews Maputo: OTM-CS, 6 May 2014; Movimento Nacional das Organizações da Sociedade, 22 May 2014; OJM, 28 May 2014.
105 Interviews Maputo: OJM, 28 May 2014; OMM, 13 and 18 June 2014.
106 Expert interview: UEM_3, Maputo, 10 December 2014.
107 Interview: CJ, Maputo, 16 March 2015.
108 Expert interviews Maputo: UEM_1; UEM_2.
109 Interview: CCM, Maputo, 22 May 2014.
110 Interview: PJ, Maputo, 8 July 2014.
111 Ibid.
112 Lewis, “Civil Society and the Authoritarian State.”
113 See also ibid.
114 For a similar argument see Kailitz’s elaborations on electoral autocracies, Kailitz, “Classifying Political Regimes Revisited,” 46.
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Jasmin Lorch
Jasmin Lorch is a Research Fellow at the GIGA Institute of Middle East Studies and at the Otto-von-Guericke-University of Magdeburg. She was a member of the research project “Civil Society Organizations as Supporters of Authoritarian Rule? A Cross-Regional Comparison (Vietnam, Algeria, Mozambique)”. She is the author of Civil Society and Mirror Images of Weak States. Bangladesh and the Philippines, forthcoming with Palgrave Macmillan.
Bettina Bunk
Bettina Bunk is an Associate of the GIGA Institute of African Affairs and is also working in the field of (local) governance in Germany as well as abroad. She was a member of the research project “Civil Society Organizations as Supporters of Authoritarian Rule?”. She submitted her PhD thesis on governance and the politics of local economic development in South Africa and Mozambique at the University of Potsdam.