https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7084-9726
![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
ABSTRACT
The “developmental state” has become a prominent alternative development model defended by contemporary Western aid donors, particularly in Africa. Purported “developmental states,” such as Ethiopia and Rwanda, are argued to possess strong-willed, visionary leaderships whose commitment to delivering on ambitious development plans renders them attractive donor partners. These leaderships are also, however, often authoritarian and unapologetic when criticized for democratic backsliding or human rights abuses. For many Western donors this represents a tolerable trade-off. The purpose of this article is to interrogate, critique and explain the assumptions and ideas underlying this trade-off. Using the case study of Ethiopia, we argue that donor officials’ understandings of “developmental state” are varied, vague and superficial, the main commonality being a “strong” regime with “political will” and a non-negotiable approach to domestic governance. We suggest that donors have too readily and uncritically accepted, internalized and deployed these notions, using the “developmental state” concept to justify their withdrawal from serious engagement on democratic reform. This derives from a systemic donor preference for depoliticized development models, as well as from Ethiopian officials’ own savvy political manoeuvrings. It has also, however, weakened donors’ position of influence at a time when the Ethiopian regime is debating major political reform.
Acknowledgements
An earlier version of this article was presented at the Danish Institute for International Studies (DIIS) in April 2019 and the authors are very grateful to DIIS colleagues, particularly to Lars Engberg-Pedersen and Neil Webster, for their feedback and insight. The authors would also like to thank two anonymous peer reviewers in this regard, as well as Dane Degenstein for his valuable research assistance. Stephen Brown is grateful to the University of Birmingham’s Institute of Advanced Studies for awarding him a Distinguished Visiting Fellowship to work with Jonathan Fisher at the International Development Department. His work was also supported by the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study in the Humanities and Social Sciences (NIAS-KNAW) and the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada. Jonathan Fisher would like to acknowledge valued support from the University of Birmingham (International Development Department and School of Government) and the Economic and Social Research Council, both of whom funded fieldwork trips. Finally, the authors are indebted to the Stellenbosch Institute for Advanced Study, South Africa, where Brown was a fellow when they first discussed writing this article and where Fisher was a fellow when they finalized it.
Disclosure statement
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
ORCID
Stephen Brown http://orcid.org/0000-0002-7084-9726
Jonathan Fisher http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0830-5189
Notes
1 Booth and Golooba-Mutebi, “Developmental Patrimonialism?”; Routley, “Developmental States in Africa.”
2 Dodsworth, “Double Standards”; Emmanuel, “Undermining Cooperation.”
3 See Hagman and Reyntjens, “Introduction,” for a germane overview of the literature on why donors support autocracies and on the impact of their aid on domestic governance.
4 Stephen Brown conducted semi-structured interviews in Addis Ababa with 26 current and former officials from Western embassies and aid agencies, as well as multilateral development institutions, over four weeks in November 2016. Jonathan Fisher undertook a further 25 interviews with similar officials in Addis Ababa, together with 6 government officials in March 2014. Fisher also interviewed 5 senior EPRDF officials in Mekelle during April 2016 and in both Mekelle and Addis Ababa in July 2018. The study also draws on interviews undertaken by Fisher in June 2009 in Kampala, Uganda, with 2 Western donor officials who had previously been based in Ethiopia. Some officials at Western embassies and aid agencies as well as international organizations were Ethiopian citizens, though most were foreigners.
5 OECD, “Official Development Assistance.”
6 Brown, “Well, What Can you Expect?”
7 Borchgevink, “Limits to Donor Influence,” 200.
8 Fisher and Anderson, “Authoritarianism and the Securitization of Development.”
9 Interview with European donor official, Kampala, June 2009; Mosley, The Politics of Poverty Reduction.
10 Fisher and Anderson, “Authoritarianism and the Securitization of Development.”
11 For more on Abiy’s rise to power and his stated reform agenda, see Fisher and Meressa, “Game Over?” and Soliman and Abel, “Can Abiy Ahmed Continue.”
12 Soliman and Abel, “Can Abiy Ahmed Continue.”
13 Fisher and Meressa, “Game Over?”
14 Dejene and Cochrane, “Ethiopia’s Developmental State.”
15 Johnson, MITI and the Japanese Miracle.
16 Whitfield et al., The Politics of African Industrial Policy.
17 Routley, “Developmental States in Africa?” 173.
18 Abbink, “Ethiopia 2004–2016”; Booth and Golooba-Mutebi, “Developmental Patrimonialism?”; Clapham, “The Ethiopian Developmental State”; Di Nunzio, “What is the Alternative?”; Gagliardone, “New Media and the Developmental State”; Lefort, “Free Market Economy” and “The Ethiopian Economy”; Planel, “Le developmental state éthiopien.”
19 Hasselslkog, “Rwandan ‘Home Grown Initiatives’”; Tapscott et al., The Democratic Developmental State.
20 Feyissa, “Aid Negotiation,” 791.
21 Aalen and Tronvoll, “The End of Democracy?”
22 Arkebe, Made in Africa.
23 Meles, “African Development.”
24 Financial Times, “FT Interview with Meles Zenawi”; Al-Jazeera, “Hailemariam Desalegn”; Kramer, “Ethiopian Prime Minister.”
25 Arriola and Lyons, “Ethiopia: The 100% Election.”
26 Kramer, “Ethiopian Prime Minister.”
27 A fuller discussion of the EPRDF’s understanding of “revolutionary democracy” can be found in Bach, “Abyotawi Democracy.” See also Vaughan, “Revolutionary Democratic State-Building,” 623; Fantini and Puddu, “Ethiopia and international aid.”
28 Fourie, “China’s Example for Meles’ Ethiopia.”
29 de Waal, “The Theory and Practice of Meles Zenawi,” 148. See also the subsequent debate: Lefort, “The Theory and Practice of Meles Zenawi: A Response” and de Waal, “The Theory and Practice of Meles Zenawi: A Reply.”
30 Fisher and Meressa, “Game Over?”
31 Interviews with former senior TPLF/EPRDF cadres, Addis Ababa and Mekelle, April 2016 and September 2017 respectively.
32 Fisher and Meressa, “Game Over?”; Soliman and Abel, “Can Abiy Ahmed Continue.”
33 Borkena.com, “EPRDF Responds.”
34 The 14 annual reports are available on the Development Assistance Group website, https://www.dagethiopia.org/content/dagethiopia/en/home/library.html. They range in length from 20 to 42 pages each.
35 USAID, Ethiopia Country Development Cooperation Strategy (78 pages).
36 World Bank, Ethiopia (128 pages).
37 Interview with European donor official, Kampala, June 2009.
38 Interview with Canadian aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
39 Interview with aid worker, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
40 Interview with World Bank official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
41 Interviews with US and World Bank donor officials, Addis Ababa, March 2014, and Western development agency official and Canadian aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
42 Interview with Western diplomat, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
43 Interviews with senior Western aid official, UNDP Staff member 1 and World Bank official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
44 Interview with World Bank official, Addis Ababa, March 2014.
45 Interview with UNDP staff member 1, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
46 Interview with senior Western aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
47 Interview with European donor official, Addis Ababa, March 2014.
48 Interview with senior European official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
49 Interview with European donor official, Kampala, June 2009.
50 Interview with UNDP staff member 1, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
51 Interview with aid worker, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
52 Interview with European donor officials, Addis Ababa, March 2014.
53 Interview with US donor official, Addis Ababa, March 2014.
54 Interview with senior European official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
55 DFID, DFID Single Departmental Plan.
56 Department of State, “About.”
57 European Commission, “Democracy.”
58 Brown, “Foreign Aid and Democracy Promotion”; Fisher and Anderson, “Authoritarianism and the Securitization of Development in Africa.”
59 Interview with senior Western aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
60 Ferguson, The Anti-Politics Machine.
61 Carothers and de Gramont, The Almost Revolution, 3.
62 Fantini and Puddu, “Ethiopia and International Aid.”
63 Carothers and de Gramont, The Almost Revolution.
64 Ibid.
65 Interview with senior European official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
66 Fisher and Meressa, “Game Over?”
67 Interview with European aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
68 Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth; Sachs, The End of Poverty.
69 OECD, Query Wizard.
70 Borchgevink, “Limits to Donor Influence,” 195.
71 Interview with senior Western aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
72 Interview with senior Western aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
73 Interview with Western development agency official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
74 Feyissa, “Aid Negotiation”; Furtado and Smith, “Ethiopia.”
75 Aalen and Tronvoll, “The End of Democracy?”
76 Interview with UNDP staff member 2, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
77 Borchgevink, “Limits to Donor Influence,” 218.
78 Abegaz, “Aid, Accountability and Institution Building,” 1393.
79 Interview with European aid official, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
80 Loewenberg, “Aid Agencies Accused.”
81 Interview with senior humanitarian worker, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
82 Interview with European head of cooperation, Addis Ababa, November 2016.
Additional information
Funding
Notes on contributors
Stephen Brown
Stephen Brown is Professor of Political Science at the University of Ottawa, Canada. He is the author of numerous publications and has edited or co-edited three volumes on foreign aid, including Rethinking Canadian Aid (second edition, 2016) and The Securitization of Foreign Aid (2016). More information is available at www.stephenbrown.xyz. Twitter: @StephenBrown3.
Jonathan Fisher
Jonathan Fisher is Reader in African Politics in the International Development Department at the University of Birmingham, UK. He is also a Research Fellow in the Centre for Gender and Africa Studies at the University of the Free State, South Africa. He is the author of East Africa after Liberation: Conflict, Security and the State since the 1980s (Cambridge University Press) and (with Nic Cheeseman) Authoritarian Africa: Repression, Resistance and the Power of Ideas (Oxford University Press).