Failed States and International Order: Constructing a Post-Westphalian World

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my gratitude to the anonymous reviewers and the editors of Contemporary Security Policy for their valuable comments on earlier drafts of this paper.

Notes

Trevor Thrall and Jane Kellet Cramer (eds), American Foreign Policy and the Politics of Fear: Threat Inflation since 9/11 (London: Routledge, 2009).

Francis Fukuyama, State-Building: Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), p. 92.

Stephen D. Krasner, ‘Rethinking the Sovereign State Model’, Review of International Studies, Vol. 27, No. 5 (December 2001), pp. 17–42.

Robert I. Rotberg, ‘Failed States in a World of Terror’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 81, No. 4 (July/August 2002), pp. 127–40; Susan E. Rice, ‘The New National Security Strategy: Focus on Failed States’, Brookings Policy Brief No. 116 (February 2003); John J. Hamre and Gordon R. Sullivan, ‘Toward Postconflict Reconstruction’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 25, No. 4 (Autumn 2002), pp. 85–96; Chester A. Crocker, ‘Engaging Failing States’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 5 (September/October, 2003), pp. 32–44.

Robert H. Jackson, Quasi-States: Sovereignty, International Relations and the Third World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990).

Ibid., p. 5.

Ibid., p. 10.

Ibid., p. 24.

Raimo Vayrynen, ‘Complex Humanitarian Emergencies: Concepts and Issues’, in E. Wayne Nafziger, Frances Stewart and Raimo Vayrynen (eds), War, Hunger, and Displacement: The Origins of Humanitarian Emergencies, Vol. 1 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), p. 43.

Kalevi J. Holsti, ‘Political Causes of Humanitarian Emergencies’, in E. Wayne Nafziger et al., War, Hunger, and Displacement (note 9), p. 239. See also Donald M. Snow, Uncivil Wars: International Security and the New Internal Conflicts (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1996); Herfried Munkler, The New Wars (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2004); Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2006).

Snow, Uncivil Wars (note 10), p. 1.

Kaldor, New and Old Wars (note 10), p. 73.

Ibid., p. 97.

Vayrynen, ‘Complex Humanitarian Emergencies’ (note 9), p. 44.

Gerald B. Helman and Steven R. Ratner, ‘Saving Failed States’, Foreign Policy, No. 89 (Winter 1992/93), pp. 3–20, at p. 3.

Francis Fukuyama, State-Building. Governance and World Order in the 21st Century (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2004), particularly Chapter 3; Robert I. Rotberg, ‘Failed States in a World of Terror’ (note 4); Chester A. Crocker, ‘Engaging Failing States’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 82, No. 5 (September/October 2003), pp. 32–44; ‘Failed States: Picking Up the Pieces’, journal symposium, various authors, Harvard International Review, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter 2008); Stephen D. Krasner and Carlos Pascual, ‘Addressing State Failure’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 4 (July–August 2005), pp. 153–63; Marla C. Haims, David C. Gompert, Gregory F. Treverton and Brooke Stearns Lawson, Breaking the Failed-State Cycle (Santa Monica, CA: RAND Corporation, 2008); Derick W. Brinkerhoff, ‘Rebuilding Governance in Failed States and Post-Conflict Societies’, Public Administration and Development, Vol. 25, No. 1 (2005), pp. 3–14; Chuck Hagel, ‘A Republican Foreign Policy’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 4 (July–August 2004), pp. 64–76; Princeton N. Lyman and J. Stephen Morrison, ‘The Terrorist Threat in Africa’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 83, No. 1 (January–February 2004), pp. 75–9; Stuart Eizenstat, John Edward Porter and Jeremy Weinstein, ‘Rebuilding Weak States’, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 84, No. 1 (January–February 2005), pp. 134–6; Rosa Ehrenreich Brooks, ‘Failed States, or the State as Failure?’, The University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 72, No. 4 (Fall 2005), pp. 1159–96; Anonymous, ‘The Failed State Index 2007’, Foreign Policy, No. 161 (2007), pp. 54–63; Rachel Stohl and Michael Stohl, ‘Failing the Failed: The Bush Administration and Failed States’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter 2008), pp. 56–65; Daniel Thurer, ‘An Internal Challenge: Partnerships in Fixing Failed States’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter 2008), pp. 42–5.

Hagel, ‘A Republican Foreign Policy’ (note 16), p. 64.

Stewart Patrick, ‘Weak States and Global Threats: Fact or Fiction?’, The Washington Quarterly, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Spring 2006), pp. 27–53; Edward Newman, ‘Weak States, State Failure, and Terrorism’, Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Winter 2007), pp. 463–88; Eka Ikpe, ‘Challenging the Discourse on Fragile States’, Conflict, Security and Development, Vol. 7, No. 1 (April 2007), pp. 85–124.

Justin Logan and Christopher Preble, ‘Fixing Failed States: A Cure Worse than the Disease?’ Harvard International Review, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter 2008), pp. 62–6.

Stefan Mair, ‘A New Approach. The Need to Focus on Failing States’, Harvard International Review, Vol. 29, No. 4 (Winter 2008), pp 52–5.

Adam David Morton, ‘The “Failed State” of International Relations’, New Political Economy, Vol. 10, No. 3 (September 2005), pp. 371–9; Morten Boos and Kathleen M. Jennings, ‘Insecurity and Development: The Rhetoric of the “Failed State”’, The European Journal of Development Research, Vol. 17, No. 3 (2005), pp. 385–95; Clement Eme Adibe, ‘Weak States and the Emerging Taxonomy of Security in World Politics’, Futures, Vol. 26, No. 5 (June 1994), pp. 490–505.

The Fund for Peace, ‘Failed State Index 2008’, available at http://www.fundforpeace.org/web/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=292&Itemid=452

Monty G. Marshall and Benjamin R. Cole, Global Report on Conflict, Governance and State Fragility 2008, Center for Systemic Peace, available at http://www.systemicpeace.org/Global%20Report%202008.pdf

Vision of Humanity, ‘Global Peace Index Rankings’, available at http://www.visionofhumanity.org/gpi/home.php

World Bank, ‘Worldwide Governance Indicators, 1996–2008’, available at http://info.worldbank.org/governance/wgi/index.asp

Brookings, ‘Index of State Weakness in the Developing World’, available at http://www.brookings.edu/reports/2008/02_weak_states_index.aspx

Gil Loescher, James Milner, Edward Newman and Gary Troeller (eds), Protracted Refugee Situations: Political, Human Rights and Security Implications (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2008).

Jörg Raab and H. Brinton Milward, ‘Dark Networks as Problems’, Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, Vol. 13, No. 4 (October 2003), pp. 413–39.

Lyudmila Zaitseva and Kevin Hand, ‘Nuclear Smuggling Chains: Suppliers, Intermediaries, and End-Users’, The American Behavioral Scientist, Vol. 46, No. 6 (February 2003), pp. 822–44; Rensselaer W. Lee III, Smuggling Armageddon (New York: St. Martin's Griffin Press, 2000).

David M. Malone and Heiko Nitzschke, ‘Economic Agendas in Civil Wars: What We Know, What We Need to Know’, Discussion Paper No. 2005/7 (Helsinki: UNU-WIDER, 2005), p. 4. See also Paul Collier and Anke Hoeffler, ‘Greed and Grievance in Civil War’, World Bank Working Paper 2002/03 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 2003); Paul Collier, ‘Doing Well Out of War’, World Bank Working Paper 1999/04 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999); Karen Ballentine and Heiko Nitzsche (eds), Profiting from Peace: Managing the Resource Dimensions of Civil War (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 2005); Richard Snyder, ‘Does Lootable Wealth Breed Disorder? A Political Economy of Extraction Framework’, Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 39, No. 8 (October 2006), pp. 943–68; Richard Snyder and Ravi Bhavnani, ‘Diamonds Blood and Taxes: A Revenue-Centered Framework for Explaining Political Order’, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, Vol. 49, No. 4 (August 2005), pp. 563–97. This special issue of The Journal of Conflict Resolution contains other useful articles on the subject: MacArtan Humphreys, ‘Natural Resources, Conflict, and Conflict Resolution: Uncovering the Mechanisms’, pp. 508–37; James Ron, ‘Paradigm in Distress? Primary Commodities and Civil War’, pp. 443–50; James D. Fearon, ‘Primary Commodity Exports and Civil War’, pp. 483–507; and Collier and Hoeffler, ‘Resource Rents, Governance, and Conflict’, pp. 625–33.

Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion: Why the Poorest Countries are Failing and What Can be Done about it (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 31.

Erling Hog, ‘States of HIV Fragility: Capacity, Vulnerabilities, and Epidemic Evolution in Mozambique’, ASCI Research Report No. 11, Clingendael Institute, Netherlands, April 2008; Andrew T. Price-Smith, ‘Vicious Circle – HIV/AIDS, State Capacity, and National Security: Lessons from Zimbabwe, 1990–2005’, Global Health Governance, Vol. I, No. 1 (January 2007), available at http://diplomacy.shu.edu/academics/global_health

Collier, The Bottom Billion (note 31), p. 31.

Jack Straw, Reordering the World: The Long-Term Implications of September 11 (London: Foreign Policy Research Centre, 2002).

Hagel, ‘A Republican Foreign Policy’ (note 16); Lyman and Morrison, ‘The Terrorist Threat in Africa’ (note 16); Krasner and Pascual, ‘Addressing State Failure’ (note 16); Stephen Van Evera, ‘Bush Administration, Weak on Terror’, Middle East Policy, Vol. 13, No. 4 (Winter 2006), pp. 28–38.

Van Evera, ‘Bush Administration’ (note 35).

Newman, ‘Weak States, State Failure, and Terrorism’ (note 18).

Kenneth Waltz, Theory of International Politics (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 1979).

Newman, ‘Weak States, State Failure, and Terrorism’ (note 18).

Barry Buzan, Ole Waever and Jaap de Wilde, Security: A New Framework for Analysis (Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1998), p. 32.

Robert I. Rotberg, ‘The Failure and Collapse of Nation-States: Breakdown, Prevention and Repair’, in Robert I. Rotberg (ed.), When States Fail: Causes and Consequences (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2004), p. 42.

National Defense Strategy (Washington, DC: Department of Defense, June 2008), pp. 2–3.

Available at www.africom.mil/AboutAFRICOM.asp. Also see the symposium on AFRICOM in Contemporary Security Policy, Vol. 30, No. 1 (April 2009).

US Department of States, ‘About the Office of the Coordinator for Reconstruction and Stabilization’, available at http://www.state.gov/s/crs/c12936.htm

UK National Security Strategy (Norwich: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 2008), p. 14.

Department for International Development, White Paper: Making Governance Work for the Poor (Norwich: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 2006).

Department for International Development, Fighting Poverty to Build a Safer World: A Strategy for Security and Development (London: DFID, 2005), p. 5.

Principles for Good International Engagement in Fragile States, DCD (2005) 11/REV.2 (Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2005), pp. 8–10.

David Chandler, Empire in Denial. The Politics of State-Building (London: Pluto Press, 2006).

Stephen D. Krasner, ‘Sharing Sovereignty New Institutions for Collapsed and Failing States’, International Security, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Fall 2004), pp. 85–120, at p. 85.

Robert O. Keohane, ‘Political Authority after Intervention: Graduations in Sovereignty’, in J.L. Holzgrefe and Keohane (eds), Humanitarian Intervention: Ethical, Legal, and Political Dilemmas (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

Stephen Krasner, ‘Compromising Westphalia’, International Security, Vol. 20, No. 3 (Winter 1996), pp. 115–51.

DFID Statistics on International Development 2008, see http://www.dfid.gov.uk/About-DFID/Finance-and-performance/DFID-Expenditure-Statistics/Statistics-on-International-Development-2008/

These ideas are developed in Edward Newman, Roland Paris and Oliver P. Richmond (eds), New Perspectives on Liberal Peacebuilding (Tokyo: United Nations University Press, 2009).

Rotberg, When States Fail (note 41).