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Abstract
The principles of eco‐tourism allude to the importance of socio‐cultural and psycho‐social aspects in natural resources management. However, approaches to natural resources management are more often addressed in isolation from cultural and heritage resources. For Botswana, this loophole is illustrated within a community‐based natural resources management (CBNRM) programme that focuses exclusively on natural and neglects cultural resources. Botswana Tourism Policy is another example.Footnote 1 I argue that these management approaches negatively impact on sustainable conservation and development of both natural and cultural resources. A case study of a community‐based organisation (CBO) called Sankuyo Tshwaragano Management Trust (STMT) is used to illustrate that the current CBNRM programme originates from a management failure to perceive cultural and heritage resources as components of the broader ‘environment’ and hence neglects the significance of alternative resources in nature tourism. An operational point of departure for an Ecotourism of Cultural Heritage Management ECT‐CHM model is identified using a Community Based Cultural Heritage Resources Mangement (COBACREM) approach and an operational definition of eco‐tourism that acknowledges alternative resources suggested.
Acknowledgements
This paper was originally presented at a conference in Scotland organised by Glasgow Caledonian on Heritage and Environment. Thanks for stimulating discussions. The author is grateful to the Office of Research and Development of the University of Botswana for providing research funds under grant no. R765 for 2007–8, and to the Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre of the University of Botswana for conference travel funds.
Notes
[1] Republic of Botswana, Tourism Policy.
[2] Keitumetse, ‘Sustainable Development and Archaeological Heritage Management’.
[3] Skeates, Debating the Archaeological Heritage; Carman and Keitumetse, ‘Talking about Heritage and Tourism’; Steele‐Prohaska n.d., 279.
[4] Keitumetse, ‘Sustainable Development and Archaeological Heritage Management’.
[5] The International Ecotourism Society (TIES). Available at http://www.ecotourism.org/webmodules/webarticlesnet/templates/eco_template.aspx?articleid=95&zoneid=2.
[6] Republic of Botswana, Botswana National Ecotourism Strategy, 5.
[7] Blamey, ‘Ecotourism’; Fennel, ‘A Content Analysis of Ecotourism Definitions’, 404.
[8] Keitumetse, ‘Sustainable Development and Archaeological Heritage Management’.
[9] Cf. English Heritage, The Monuments Protection Programme; English Heritage, Management of Archaeological Projects; Department of the Environment, England 1990; and see Fisher et al., Implementing the Precautionary Principle.
[10] Darvill, ‘Value and Systems in Archaeology’, 42–8.
[11] Robinson, Agenda 21; Fisher et al., Implementing the Precautionary Principle.
[12] Pule 1998, 22; UNESCO, Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage.
[13] Republic of Botswana, National Policy on Culture; Keitumetse, Theorizing Community Representation.
[14] Republic of Botswana, National Policy on Culture, 6.
[15] Thakadu and Schuster, ‘Introduction’.
[16] Drumm and Moore, Ecotourism Development.
[17] Zeppel, ‘Indigenous Ecotourism’.
[18] Roe et al., Getting the Lion’s Share from Tourism.
[19] Keitumetse, ‘Sustainable Development and Archaeological Heritage Management’.
[20] Lehmann, ‘Introduction’; Midgley, ‘Introduction’; Smith, Cultural Theory.
[21] Midgley, ‘Introduction’.
[22] Republic of Botswana, Tourism Policy, 8–9.
[23] DWNP 1982.
[24] CBNRM Policy 2007.
[25] Republic of Botswana, Community Based Natural Resources Management Policy.
[26] Roe et al., Getting the Lion’s Share from Tourism.
[27] Republic of Botswana, Community Natural Resource Management Lease; Republic of Botswana, Tourism Lease.
[28] WTTC 2007.
[29] Drumm and Moore, Ecotourism Development, 13.
[30] Spenneman et al., ‘Heritage Eco‐Tourism in Micronesia’, 30.
[31] Kgamanyane, ‘The Contribution of Rock Paintings’.
[32] Cohen, ‘Sociology of Tourism’.
[33] Keitumetse, Theorizing Community Representation
[34] Black and Crabtree 2007; Neumayer, ‘Weak Versus Strong Sustainability’.
[35] Keitumetse, ‘Sustainable Development and Archaeological Heritage Management’.
[36] Darvill, ‘Value and Systems in Archaeology’.
[37] Keitumetse, ‘Sustainable Development and Archaeological Heritage Management’.
[38] Keitumetse, Theorizing Community Representation; Smithsonian Institution.
[39] Arntzen, ‘Community Based Natural Resources Management Projects’.
[40] Arntzen et al., ‘Main Findings of the Review of CBNRM in Botswana’, 18.
[41] Roe et al., Getting the Lion’s Share from Tourism, 11.
[42] Zeppel, ‘Indigenous Ecotourism’, 12.
[43] Ibid., 2.
[44] Keitumetse 2007.
[45] Drumm and Moore, Ecotourism Development.
[46] Stankey et al., ‘Limits of Acceptable Change’.
[47] UNESCO, Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage; Declaration and Programme of Action; Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage.
[48] Zeppel, ‘Indigenous Ecotourism’.
[49] 1LO 1989; Keitumetse 2007.
[50] UNESCO, Declaration and Programme of Action.
