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Abstract
This article analyses the Turkish nationalist elite’s economic and demographic Turkification policies toward the non-Muslim minorities in the 1920s and 1930s, and argues that the nationalist elite pursued ethnocultural nationalism toward the country’s non-Muslim citizens, while applying civic-territorial nationalism toward Muslim Turks. The article maintains that the nationalist elite, like the Young Turk regime, aimed at forming a national Turkish Muslim businessmen class at the expense of the non-Muslim minorities by pursuing economic and demographic Turkification policies.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to Professors Nur Bilge Criss, Birol Yeşilada, Sabri Sayarı and two anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments on this article.
Notes
This article was originally published with errors. This version has been corrected/amended. Please see Erratum (https://doi.org/10.1080/13530194.2017.1402792).
1 Rogers Brubaker, Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 184–189.
2 Rogers Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed: Nationhood and the National Question in the New Europe (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 5 (emphasis in original).
3 Ayşe Buğra, State and Business in Modern Turkey: A Comparative Study (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1994), p. 20.
4 Banu Eligür, The Mobilization of Political Islam in Turkey (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 38.
5 Hugh Poulton, Top Hat, Grey Wolf, and Crescent: Turkish Nationalism and the Turkish Republic (London: Hurst & Company, 1997), pp. 46–47.
6 Ibid., pp. 39–41.
7 Çağlar Keyder, ‘Kayıp Burjuvazi Aranıyor’ [The Lost Bourgeoisie Is Being Sought], Toplumsal Tarih, 68 (August 1999), pp. 5–6.
8 Çağlar Keyder, State & Class in Turkey: A Study in Capitalist Development (London: Verso, 1987), p. 78; Erik J. Zürcher, Turkey: A Modern History (New York: I.B. Tauris, 1994), p. 50.
9 Charles Issawi, ‘The Transformation of the Economic Position of the Millets in the 19th Century’, in Benjamin Braude and Bernard Lewis (eds.), Christians and Jews in the Ottoman Empire (New York: Holmes and Meier, 1982), p. 169.
10 Ibid., p. 160.
11 M. Çağatay Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları [Minority Policies during the One Party Period] (Istanbul: Istanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları, 2004), pp. 199, 204.
12 Justin McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities: The Population of Ottoman Anatolia and the End of the Empire (New York: New York University Press, 1983), p. 1.
13 Keyder, State & Class in Turkey, p. 79.
14 McCarthy, Muslims and Minorities, p. 2; Avner Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler: Hukuki ve Siyasi Durumları [Jews in the Turkish Republic: Their Legal and Political Situation] (Istanbul: İletişim, 1996), p. 14.
15 Ahmet İçduygu, Şule Toktaş and B. Ali Soner, ‘The Politics of Population in a Nation-Building Process: Emigration of non-Muslims from Turkey’, Ethnic and Racial Studies, 31(2) (2008), p. 363.
16 Kemal Karpat, Ottoman Population: Demographic and Social Characteristics (1830–1914) (Madison, WI: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), pp. 168–169.
17 Soner Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey: Who is a Turk? (London: Routledge, 2006), p. 5; Kemal H. Karpat, ‘Historical Continuity and Identity Change’, in Kemal H. Karpat (ed.), Ottoman Past and Today’s Turkey (Leiden: Brill, 2000), p. 22.
18 Karpat, Ottoman Population, pp. 188–189.
19 İçduygu et al., ‘The Politics of Population’, pp. 363–364; Nesim Şeker, ‘Demographic Engineering in the Late Ottoman Empire and the Armenians’, Middle Eastern Studies, 43(3) (2007), p. 465.
20 Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, p. 3.
21 Linda Colley, for example, argues that wars or threat of wars with France over an extended period played a crucial role in the moulding of the British national identity. See Linda Colley, Britons: Forging the Nation 1707–1837 (London: Pimlico, 1994), pp. 283–320.
22 Mete Tunçay, T.C.’nde Tek-Parti Yönetimi’nin Kurulması [The Establishment of Single Party Rule in Turkey] (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı, 1999), p. 186.
23 Yeşim Bayar, Formation of the Turkish Nation-State, 1920–1938 (New York: Palgrave, 2014), p. 4.
24 Ibid.
25 Brubaker, Nationalism Reframed, p. 86.
26 Turkey transferred itself to multiparty politics in 1946. The R.P.P. after winning the 1946 general elections continued to rule the country as the party of government until 1950.
27 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 30; İçduygu et al., ‘The Politics of Population’, p. 364; Alexis Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul and Greek-Turkish Relations (1918-–1974), 2nd ed. (Athens: Center for Asia Minor Studies, 1992); Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, pp. 65–66; and Derya Bayır, Minorities and Nationalism in Turkish Law (Ashford: Ashgate, 2013), p. 121.
28 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 28.
29 Ibid., p. 24; Rıfat Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri: Bir Türkleştirme Serüveni (1923–1945) [Turkish Jews under the Republican Years: An Episode of Turkification (1923–1945)], 2nd ed. (Istanbul: İletişim, 2000), p. 62; and Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 15.
30 Poulton, Top Hat, Grey Wolf, and Crescent, pp. 53–54.
31 Stanford J. Shaw, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish Republic (New York: New York University Press, 1991), pp. 218, 243.
32 Following the defeat of the Greek armies, over one million Anatolian Greeks migrated from Turkey to Greece. There is no consensus regarding the number of Greeks who were included in the population exchange programme. According to Kemal Arı the figure is 250,000 people, but according to Justin McCarthy the figure is 190,000 people. See Kemal Arı, Büyük Mübadele: Türkiye’ye Zorunlu Göç (1923–1925) [The Great Exchange: Forced Migration to Turkey (1923–1925)] (Istanbul: Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, 1995), p. 8; Justin McCarthy, The Ottoman Peoples and the End of Empire (London: Arnold, 2004), p. 160.
33 Zürcher, Turkey, p. 171; McCarthy, The Ottoman Peoples, pp. 148, 160. For a detailed account of the population exchange between Turkey and Greece see Ayhan Aktar, Türk Milliyetçiliği, Gayrimüslimler ve Ekonomik Dönüşüm [Turkish Nationalism, Non-Muslims and Economic Transformation] (Istanbul: İletişim, 2006), pp. 99–156.
34 Mahmut Goloğlu, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti 1923 [Turkish Republic 1923] (Ankara: Başnur Matbaası, 1971), pp. 40, 257–258.
35 TBMM Gizli Celse Zabıtları [Journal of Proceedings of the Turkish Grand National Assembly Secret Meeting Records], Term I, Vol. 4, 2 March 1923, p. 8. https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/GZC/d01/CILT04/gcz01004002.pdf (accessed 29 March 2017).
36 Ahmet Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene: Türk Ulusal Kimliğinin Etno-Seküler Sınırları (1919–1938) [How Happy He, Who Can Say He Is a Turk: Ethno-Secular Boundaries of the Turkish National Identity (1919–1938)], 5th ed. (Istanbul: İletişim, 2013), p. 134.
37 Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Modern Turkey, 3rd ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), p. 355.
38 Ibid., pp. 354–355; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p. 233; Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 13; Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene, pp. 132–133.
39 Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene, p. 135; Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 83. Çağaptay notes that although the Gagavuzes were excluded from the immigration, there were a number of individuals who were admitted to Turkey. See Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 196 n. 17.
40 Poulton, Top Hat, Grey Wolf, and Crescent, pp. 89–90.
41 Dankward A. Rustow, ‘Atatürk as an Institution Builder’, in Ali Kazancıgil and Ergun Özbudun (eds.), Atatürk: Founder of a Modern State (London: Hurst, 1981), p. 73.
42 M. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Atatürk: An Intellectual Biography (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2011), p. 46.
43 Author’s interview with Professor Ayşe Buğra, Istanbul, 30 May 2016; Keyder, ‘Kayıp Burjuvazi Aranıyor’, p. 9.
44 Zürcher, Turkey, p. 172.
45 Foreign Office (FO)—Great Britain, FO E 4095/4095/44. Mr. Lindsay (Constantinople) to Mr. MacDonald, 6 May 1924, ‘Annual Report, 1923’, Doc. 41, in Bülent Gökay (ed.), British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East, 1918–1939, Vol. 30, Turkey: July 1923-March 1927 (Bethesda, MD: ProQuest LLC, 2012), p. 55.
46 At Lausanne, M. Ryan from the British delegation argued that treaties on minorities in Europe provided more rights to Muslims when compared to the rights that Turkey provided to Christians within the framework of the Lausanne Treaty. See Seha L. Meray, Lozan Barış Konferansı: Tutanaklar, Belgeler (23 Nisan-24 Temmuz 1923) [Lausanne Peace Conference: Records, Documents (23 April-24 July 1923)] (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi, 1972), pp. 91–92.
47 Yeşim Bayar, ‘In Pursuit of Homogeneity: The Lausanne Conference, Minorities, and the Turkish Nation’, Nationalities Papers, 42(1) (2014), p. 114; Goloğlu, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti 1923, p. 23.
48 Bayır, Minorities and Nationalism, p. 90.
49 Shaw, The Jews of the Ottoman Empire, p. 245; İçduygu et al., ‘The Politics of Population’, p. 365; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p. 73.
50 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 31.
51 Şeref Gözübüyük and Zekai Sezgin, 1924 Anayasası Hakkındaki Meclis Görüşmeleri [Parliamentary Discussions on the 1924 Constitution] (Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi İdari İlimler Enstitüsü, n.d.), p. 441.
52 Bülent Tanör, Osmanlı-Türk Anayasal Gelişmeleri (1789–1980) [Ottoman-Turkish Constitutional Developments (1789–1980)], 27th ed. (Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2016), p. 308.
53 Başak İnce, Citizenship and Identity in Turkey: From Atatürk’s Republic to the Present Day (New York: I.B. Tauris, 2012), p. 46.
54 Gözübüyük and Sezgin, 1924 Anayasası Hakkındaki Meclis Görüşmeleri, pp. 437–439.
55 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 15.
56 Ibid.; Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene, p. 138.
57 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 15.
58 Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, pp. 204–205; Ayhan Aktar, Varlık Vergisi ve ‘Türkleştirme’ Politikaları [The Wealth Tax and the ‘Turkification’ Policies] (Istanbul: İletişim, 2000), pp. 101–133.
59 Goloğlu, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti 1923, pp. 56, 91–97.
60 FO E 633/32/44. Mr. Henderson (Constantinople) to Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, 15 January 1924, Doc. 47, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 107.
61 Yıldız, Ne Mutlu Türküm Diyebilene, p. 114; Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, p. 106; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, pp. 214–215.
62 Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, pp. 106–107.
63 Quoted from Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, p. 106 [FO 371/9113/E280. Roberts (Constantinople) to Dept. of Overseas Trade, 11 December 1922].
64 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 56.
65 Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, pp. 108–109.
66 FO E 633/32/44. Mr. Henderson (Constantinople) to Marquess Curzon of Kedleston, 15 January 1924, Doc. 47, in Gökay (ed.), British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 108.
67 FO E 4095/4095/44. Mr. Lindsay (Constantinople) to Mr. MacDonald, 6 May 1924, ‘Annual Report, 1923’, Doc. 41, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 59.
68 Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, pp. 110–111; Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, p. 209.
69 Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, p. 209.
70 Süleyman Sırrı Bey was the Minister of Public Works between January and November 1924 and between March and December 1925. Feyzi Bey was the minister between January and October 1923 and between November 1924 and March 1925.
71 TBMM Zabıt Ceridesi [Journal of Proceedings of the Turkish Grand National Assembly Meeting Records], Term II, Vol. 5, 6 February 1924, p. 612. https://www.tbmm.gov.tr/tutanaklar/TUTANAK/TBMM/d02/c005/tbmm02005096.pdf (accessed 29 March 2017).
72 Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, pp. 110–111; Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, p. 213.
73 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 28; Murat Koraltürk, Erken Cumhuriyet Döneminde Ekonominin Türkleştirilmesi [Turkification of Economy during the Early Republican Period] (Istanbul: İletişim, 2011), pp. 236–237.
74 Koraltürk, Erken Cumhuriyet Döneminde Ekonominin Türkleştirilmesi, pp. 237–244.
75 Department of State—United States of America, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Turkey, 1910–1929, Microfilm Publication M353, Roll 22. SD 867.01A/22. Acheson to Charles V. Vickrey, General Secretary of Near East Relief, ‘Open Letter for April 1924’, Vickrey to Allen W. Dulles, 22 May 1924.
76 Ibid.
77 Ibid.
78 Department of State—United States of America, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Turkey, 1910–1929, Microfilm Publication M353, Roll 48. SD 867.4016/970. Buhrman (Aleppo) to Washington, 23 February 1924, ‘Deportation of Christians from Turkey’.
79 SD 867.4016/973. Buhrman (Aleppo) to Washington, 11 March 1924, ‘Situation in Urfa: Evacuation of Christian Population’.
80 Buhrman estimated that before the war, there were 100,000 Assyrian Christians in the area defined by the cities of Adana, Harput, Bitlis and Mosul. As of February 1924, he estimated that there were 30,000 Assyrians in Turkey. See SD 867.4016/968. Buhrman (Aleppo) to Washington, 13 February 1924, ‘Turkish Deportation of Assyrians’.
81 Ibid.
82 Ibid.
83 Ibid.
84 SD 867.4016/971. Buhrman (Aleppo) to Washington, 4 March 1924, ‘Assyrian Refugees from Urfa, Turkey’.
85 Ibid.
86 SD 867.4016/970. Buhrman (Aleppo) to Washington, 23 February 1924, ‘Deportation of Christians from Turkey’.
87 SD 867.4016/977. Buhrman (Aleppo) to Washington, 24 March 1924, ‘Assyrian Deportations; Unsettled Conditions, Mardin, Diarbekir’.
88 FO E 823/823/44. Loraine (Angora) to Mr. Eden, 28 January 1937, ‘Annual Report, 1936’, Doc. 82, in Bülent Gökay (ed.), British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East, 1918–1939, Vol. 34, Turkey: January 1936-December 1937 (Bethesda, MD: ProQuest LLC, 2012), p. 156.
89 FO E 4380/3822/44. Mr. Hoare (Therapia) to Mr. Austen Chamberlain, 20 July 1925, Doc. 256, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 327.
90 Ibid.
91 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 26.
92 SD 867.4016/967. Bristol (Constantinople) to Washington, 1 December 1923.
93 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 32; Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 25.
94 Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, pp. 40–54.
95 SD 867.4016/967. Bristol (Constantinople) to Washington, 1 December 1923.
96 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, pp. 52–53; Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, pp. 225–226.
97 Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, p. 45; Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, p. 140; Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p. 120; Baskın Oran, Türkiye’de Azınlıklar [Minorities in Turkey], 7th ed. (Istanbul: İletişim, 2015), p. 147.
98 Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, pp. 125–127.
99 FO E 1246/253/44. Mr. Morgan (Angora) to Sir John Simon, 1 March 1932, in Bülent Gökay (ed.), Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East, 1918–1939, Vol. 32, Turkey: January 1930-December 1932 (Bethesda, MD: ProQuest LLC, 2012), p. 269.
100 Ibid.
101 FO E 1072/373/44. Sir R. Lindsay (Constantinople) to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 8 February 1926, Doc. 295, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 387.
102 FO E 1718/373/44. Sir R. Lindsay (Constantinople) to Mr. Austen Chamberlain, 10 March 1926, Doc. 298, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 390.
103 Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, pp. 215–216; Koraltürk, Erken Cumhuriyet Döneminde Ekonominin Türkleştirilmesi, p. 266.
104 FO E 1884/1021/44. Harold Woods (Constantinople), ‘Memorandum from British Embassy, Constantinople’, 2 March 1926, Doc. 299, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 393.
105 Ibid.
106 FO E 7918/194/44. Sir R. Lindsay (Constantinople) to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 15 December 1925, Doc. 289, ‘Inclosure in Doc. 289’, ‘Report of a Conversation with M. Albert Mille, Correspondent of the “Journal des Débats”, on the Subject of his Journal in Trebizond, Erzerum, Kars and Mush’, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 361.
107 FO E 3236/257/44. Consul Knight (Trebizond) to Sir G. Clerk, 12 June 1927, Doc. 28, ‘Inclosure in Doc. 26’, in Bülent Gökay (ed.), British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Turkey, Iran, and the Middle East, 1918–1939, Vol. 31, Turkey: March 1927-December 1929 (Bethesda, MD: ProQuest LLC, 2012), p. 38.
108 FO E 2531/560/44. Consul-General Morgan (Smyrna) to Sir G. Clerk, 19 April 1928, ‘Inclosure in Doc. 124’, Doc. 125, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 31, p. 178.
109 FO E 3997/9/44. Sir G. Clerk (Constantinople) to Sir Austen Chamberlain, 4 August 1928, Doc. 142, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 31, p. 196. For details see Doc. 143 in ibid.
110 Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, p. 56; Bayır, Minorities and Nationalism, p. 122.
111 Cem Behar, Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nun ve Türkiye’nin Nüfusu, 1500–1927 [The Population of the Ottoman Empire and Turkey, 1500–1927] (Ankara: T.C. Başbakanlık Devlet İstatistik Enstitüsü, 1996), p. 64.
112 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 16.
113 FO E 2983/811/44. Sir G. Clerk (Angora) to Sir John Simon, 10 June 1932, in Gökay, Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 32, p. 291; Başbakanlık Cumhuriyet Arşivi (BCA) (Prime Ministry’s Republican Archives)—Turkey, BCA, 490.01..1438.3.3, 3 June 1934.
114 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, pp. 70, 75; Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, p. 185.
115 Department of State—United States of America, Records of the Department of State Relating to Internal Affairs of Turkey, 1930–44, Microfilm Publication M1224, Roll 10. SD 867.4016/GREEKS/4. Skinner (Ankara) to Washington, 30 June 1934, ‘Exodus of the Greeks from Istanbul’.
116 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, pp. 75–76.
117 Okutan, Tek Parti Döneminde Azınlık Politikaları, p. 217.
118 SD 867.4016/ARMENIANS/1. Grew (Istanbul) to Washington, 12 February 1930.
119 Ibid.
120 FO E 1244/203/44. Sir G. Clerk to Mr. A. Henderson, Doc. 13, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 32, pp. 10–11.
121 SD 867.4016/ARMENIANS/1. Grew (Istanbul) to Washington, 12 February 1930.
122 FO E 913/913/44. Sir G. Clerk (Constantinople) to Mr. A. Henderson, 18 February 1931, Doc. 156, ‘Annual Report, 1930’, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 32, p. 148.
123 SD 867.4016/ARMENIANS/11. Skinner (Ankara) to Washington, 2 March 1934, ‘Deportations of Armenians’.
124 Ibid.
125 Ibid.
126 Ibid.
127 Ibid.
128 The settlement law (No. 2510) primarily aimed at Turkifying Kurds by relocating and mixing them with Turks. The law also aimed at Turkifying Thrace.
129 Banu Eligür, ‘The 1934 Anti-Jewish Thrace Riots: The Jewish Exodus of Thrace through the Lens of Nationalism and Collective Violence’, British Journal of Middle Eastern Studies, 44(1) (2017), pp. 88–109.
130 FO E 3338/3338/44. Lindsay (Constantinople) to Mr. Austen Chamberlain, 1 June 1925, ‘Annual Report, 1924’, Doc. 192, in Gökay, British Documents on Foreign Affairs, Part II, Series B, Vol. 30, p. 247.
131 Ibid.
132 SD 867.4016/776. Herrick (Paris) to Washington, 23 November 1922.
133 Ibid.
134 SD 867.4016/JEWS/2. Sherrill (Istanbul) to Washington, 20 December 1932, ‘Turkish Jews Consider Relinquishing Spanish for Turkish’; SD 867.4016/JEWS/3. George (Izmir) to Washington, 13 December 1932, ‘Popularizing Turkish’; SD 867.4016/JEWS/7. Allen (Istanbul) to Washington, 11 December 1933, ‘Turkification of Jews’; Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, pp. 25–27, 58–59; Levi, Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nde Yahudiler, pp. 39–40, 89–91, 96; Bali, Cumhuriyet Yıllarında Türkiye Yahudileri, pp. 151–152.
135 Senem Aslan, ‘Citizen, Speak Turkish!’, Nationalism and Ethnic Politics, 13(2) (2007), pp. 255, 258–259.
136 SD 867.9111/363. Allen (Istanbul) to Washington, ‘Digest of the Turkish Press for the Period May 1–14, 1932’.
137 Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, pp. 126–127.
138 Alexandris, The Greek Minority of Istanbul, p. 142; Çağaptay, Islam, Secularism, and Nationalism in Modern Turkey, p. 60.
139 Lerna Ekmekçioğlu, Recovering Armenia: The Limits of Belonging in Post-Genocide Turkey (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 2016), pp. 8, 13–14, 109, 114, 124–128.