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ABSTRACT
During the first two decades of statehood, Israeli labor policy advocated for full employment by creating new workplaces or work relief in order to absorb the mass waves of immigration. The dominant ideology was that of work ethos – work was perceived as a human and social value; therefore, Israelis believed that money should be paid for work and not for unemployment. In the beginning of the 1960s, the government related to labor as an economic instrument that was supposed to serve the meta-economic goal of economic independence. The political and social relations that existed between 1967 and 1985 were based on human capital and material reward. This was a liminal period. Since 1985, the government has led a revolution that transformed work into employment. This converted the workers into employees who serve economic and business ends. Labor became employment. Led by the Israeli government, this transformation ran counter to workers’ attitudes that preferred job security and collective stability. The fundamental change was dictated from above and was not a consensual shift.
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No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. Polanyi, The Great Transformation, 71–2.
2. Ibid., 75.
3. “Solon in Lydia by Theodor Herzl – english translation,” TDDPirate’s Ideas, accessed, https://tddpirate.zak.co.il/third-level-richness/solon-in-lydia-by-theodor-herzl-english-translation/.
4. Schweid, Ha-yahid, 175–78.
5. Reinhart-Rogoff, This Time is Different, 253.
6. Chang, 23 Things They Don’t Tell You About Capitalism, 58.
7. Hobsbawm, Age of Extremes, 403, 406, 416.
8. Ferner and Hyman, Industrial Relations in the New Europe, xvi-xxvii.
9. O’Higgins, Labor is Not a Commodity, 226.
10. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, 37.
11. Krampf, “Liberalization and Universal Unemployment in Israel,” 5.
12. Divrei Haknesset – Knesset Minutes, 15.3.1971, 1839–1840.
13. Protocol no. 94, Knesset labor committee, 3.5.1971.
14. Krampf, “What do Workers Want?” 893.
15. Zeira, kalkalat Yisrael, 75, 198.
16. Author’s Talk, March 27 and October 11, 1949.
17. Esping-Andersen, The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, 44.
18. Krampf, “What do Workers Want?” 887.
19. Blecher, Simons, and Ben-Israel, Nayadut ovdim 1958–1964, 2–16.
20. Ibid., 148.
21. Ibid.
22. Ibid.
23. Klinov-Malul, Productivity of Labor and Machines in Israel’s Cotton Spinning Mills.
24. ISA Special Documents’ Collection Folio – Fifty years of Mitun – ISA-PMO State Documents Dep- 0011ufk.
25. Diveri Haknesset – The Knesset Minutes – The 5th Knesset, Financial Committee Session no. 359, 27.10.1964.
26. Ibid.
27. Sapir, The Mitun, 5–15.
28. Divrei Haknesset – Knesset Minutes, June 30, 1953, 1759.
29. Gal, “Toldot bituach ha-avtala Be-Yisrael,” 121–23.
30. Divrei Haknesset – Knesset Minutes, March 5, 1971, 1821.
31. Krampf, “Liberalization and Universal Unemployment in Israel,” 7.
32. Barak, “The Israeli Tax Reforms in the 1970s as Socially-Oriented Reforms,” 874–89.
33. Nadiv, Heibetim, 13.
34. Saporta, “Companies for Temporary Workers,” 12–33.
35. Bank of Israel, Annual Report 1989, 1–3.
36. Galin, “Small Manufacturing Enterprises,” 289–90.
37. Galin and Ozer Management 2000 – Flexible Management, 9.
38. Ibid., 11–13.
39. Cohen, Steier, and Nadiv, “Involuntary Part-Time Employment in Israel,” 353–71.
40. Recommendations of the Committee for the Examination of the Wage System of the Public Service, 7.
41. Macionis, Sociology, 247.
42. Brand, Ha-tesua le-myamuniot, 32.
43. The Marker, December 30, 2019.
44. High Court of Justice plea 90/86,July 28, 1986.
45. Raday, “Dinei avoda ve-yachasei avoda,” 178.
46. The verdict in case 8–4/35 National Labor Court, October 26, 1975.
47. The verdict in case 11–4/48 National Labor Court, May 16, 1988.
48. The verdict in case 239/83 High Court of Justice, April 1, 1988.
49. The verdict in case 3–2/48, National Labor Court,May 9. 1988.
50. The verdict in case 3–121/47, National Labor Court, August 25, 1988.
51. Raday, “One-sided Change of Work Conditions,” 78–9.
52. Segal and Litor, Aktivism v-pasivism shiputy, 23.
53. Saporta, “Companies for Temporary Workers,” Tables 1 & 2.
54. Galin, “Mikur hutz,” 610–1.
55. Report of the Committee on Contractors Employment, 5, 9, 11.
56. Harel, Tzafrir, and Bamberger, “Institutional Change and Union Membership,” 463–66.
57. Ibid., 482.
58. Nissim and De Vries, “Permanent Liminality,” 435.
59. Sussman, “From Collective Agreements to Individual Contracts,” 32–3.
60. Cohen, Haberfeld, Mundlak, and Saporta, Shiur ha-ovdim ha-me’urganim, 27–29.
61. Etkes and Almog, Hitaagdut ovdim, 2.
62. Koch-Davidovich, Ma’avkam shel ovdim, 2–3.
63. Ibid., 3,13.
64. Michelson, The Effect of Personal Contracts, 1.
65. Mazar, An Examination in the Wage in the Public and Private Sectors, 1.
66. Norris, “Is there Still a Public Service Ethos?” 88.
67. Koch-Davidovich, Ma’avkam shel ovdim, 5.
68. Report on Reserving Rights of Guards, Cleaners and Catering Workers, 5.
69. Haaretz, 21.7.2015.
70. Tal-Sapiro, Netunim al ovdei kablan, 1–2.
71. Gruber, “Ovdei kablan Be-Yisrael,” 91.
72. Feldman, “Ex-antes. Ex-post,” 752.
73. Nadiv and Feldman, “Positive and Normative Aspects of Quality (or Inequality),” 180.
74. Report of the Steering Committee to Labor Laws Enforcement, 4.
75. Rosso, Dekas, and Wrzesniewski, On the Meaning of Work,” 30, 91–2.
76. Ibid., 111.
77. Ibid., 112.
78. Ibid., 112–3.
79. Sharabi and Harpaz, “Changes of Work Values in Changing Economy,” 692–706.
80. Marx, “Money and Alienated Man,” 289.
81. Whiteside, “An Analysis of the Concept of Alienation in Karl Marx’s Early Writings,” 25.
82. Marx, “Money and Alienated Man,” 274.
83. Ibid., 292.
84. Ibid., 294–5.
85. Ibid.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Yair Barak
Yair Barak is a research fellow at Cohn Institute for the History and Philosophy of Science and Ideas in Tel Aviv University. He published a two volumes book titled Privatization: A Societal Change and Economic Turn in Israel.