A comparative perspective of UN peacekeeping in Angola and Namibia

Abstract

This article examines operations in Angola and Namibia, countries that offer prime examples of UN peacekeeping, albeit with divergent outcomes. In Angola, numerous UN peace missions – namely, the verification missions UNAVEM I, II and III and the observation mission MONUA – failed to create a permanent secure and peaceful framework. In Namibia, the United Nations Transition Assistance Group (UNTAG), one of the first multidimensional UN peace operations, was able to successfully carry out its mandate. The article finds that the mandates, resources and operational environments of these various peacekeeping operations powerfully influenced their performance, and isolates applicable lessons from the experiences of the two countries.

Acknowledgements

This article was produced during a Research Internship on the Norwegian Initiative on Small Arms Transfers project at the International Peace Research Institute, Oslo (PRIO). The author would like to thank John Carville at PRIO for his editorial assistance.

Notes

See E. Aksu, The United Nations, intra-state peacekeeping and normative change, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2003; William Durch (ed.), The Evolution of UN Peacekeeping: Case Studies and Comparative Analysis, London: Macmillan, 1994; A.B. Fetherston, Towards a Theory of United Nations Peacekeeping (London: Macmillan, 1994; Boutros Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace, Preventive Diplomacy, Peacemaking and Peacekeeping, New York: United Nations, 1992; United Nations, The Blue Helmets: A Review of United Nations Peacekeeping, New York: United Nations Department of Information, 1996; D. Warner, New Dimensions of Peacekeeping, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 1995.

Boutros-Ghali, An Agenda for Peace (n.1 above), p.11.

Supplement to an Agenda for Peace: Position Paper of the Secretary General on the Occasion of the Fiftieth anniversary of the UN, UN Doc. A/50/60-S/1995/I, 3 Jan. 1995.

See D. Rotchild, Managing Ethnic Conflict in Africa, Washington: The Brookings Institution, 1997, pp.118–24.

United Nations, The Blue Helmets (see n.1 above), p.273; Vladimir Krška, ‘Peacekeeping in Angola (UNAVEM I and II)’, International Peackeeping, Vol.4, No.1, 1997, pp.75–97.

C. Knudsen, A. Mundt and I.W. Zartman, Peace Agreements: The Case of Angola, Durban, ACCORD, 2000, p.5.

In his assessment of conflict management Zartman developed the concept of the mutually hurting stalemate and ripe moments. This occurs when a costly and painful military deadlock compels belligerent parties to consider alternative (non-military) conflict resolution strategies. See ‘The Timing of Peace Initiatives: Hurting Stalemates and Ripe Moments’, Global Review of Ethnopolitics, Vol.1, No.1, Sept. 2001, pp.8–18.

Norrie MacQueen, ‘Peacekeeping by Attrition: The United Nations in Angola’, Journal of Modern African Studies, Vol.36, No.3, 1998, p.405.

D. Rotchild and C. Hartzell, ‘Interstate and Intrastate Negotiations in Angola’, in I.W. Zartmann (ed.), Elusive Peace: Negotiating and End to Civil Wars, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1995, p.200.

President Dos Santos had been in Zambia to sign the agreement on behalf of the MPLA government but Savimbi, ominously betraying his continued lack of confidence in the peace process, was absent as his elusive nature began to complicate the implementation of the agreement.

MacQueen (see n.8 above), p.407.

Difficulties in the peace process compelled the ultimate extension of MONUA's mandate to 26 February 1999. Even then, MONUA had still not completed its tasks.

MacQueen (n.8 above), p.416.

For detailed analyses see L. Cliffe et al., The Transition to Independence in Namibia, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1994; S. Groth, Namibia, The Wall of Silence, The Dark Days of the Liberation Struggle, Wuppertal: Peter Hammer Verlag, 1995; C. Leys and J.S. Saul, Namibia's Liberation Struggle, London: James Currey, 1995; United Nations, The Blue Helmets (see n. above); C.J. Tsokodayi, ‘Namibia and Hostage Politics: The Convergence of United States and South African Foreign Policies under Constructive Engagement’, Journal of Peace, Conflict and Military Studies (Centre for Defence Studies, Harare), Vol.1, No.2, 2000, pp.85–103.

See Cliffe (n.14 above), p.85.

Accessed at www.un.org/Depts/DPKO/unavemI/UnavemIM.htm.

S. Brown, ‘Diplomacy by Other Means – SWAPO's Liberation War’, in Leys and Saul (n.14 above), p.37.

United Nations, The Blue Helmets (n.1 above), pp.209–10.

David Cox, ‘Peacemaking and Disarmament: Peace Agreements, Security Council Mandates, and the Disarmament Experience,’ in United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research [UNIDIR], Disarmament and Conflict Resolution Project: Managing Arms in Peace Processes: The Issues, Geneva: UNIDIR, 1996, p.84. See also, Lisa Morjé Howard, ‘UN Peace Implementation in Namibia: the Causes of Success’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.9, No.1, 2002, pp.99–132.

Interview with Maj.-Gen. Michael Nyambuya, Zimbabwe National Army, (former UNAVEM II Chief Military Observer), Harare, 29 Aug. 2002.

Accessed at www.un.org/Depts/DPKO Missions/Unavem2/UnavemIIBhtm.

T. Ohlson and S.J. Stedman, The New is Not Yet Born: Conflict Resolution in Southern Africa, Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1994, p.109.

J. Madden, ‘Namibia: A Lesson for Success’, accessed at www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/example/nami7319.htm.

J. Boulden, ‘Rules of Engagement, Force Structure and Composition in UN Disarmament Operations’ in UNIDIR (n.19 above), p.147.

MacQueen (see n.8 above), p.405.

Alex Vines, ‘Angola: 40 Years of War’,Track Two, (Rondebosch, Centre for Conflict Resolution) Vol.9, No.2, June 2000, p.9.

United Nations, The Blue Helmets (n.1 above), p.228.

Margaret Anstee, Orphan of the Cold War. The Inside Story of the Collapse of the Angolan Peace Process, London, Macmillan, 1996, p.14. In 1993 the UN provided a massive US$2 billion for Cambodia.

Ibid, p.38.

Ibid., p.25.

Ibid., p.49.

Ibid., p.38.

Knudsen, Mundt and Zartman (see n.6 above), p.14. Maj.-Gen. Nyambuya (see n.20 above), concurred that a small unarmed military observer team had to supervise about 100,000 heavily armed military personnel.

Interview with Maj.-Gen. Nyambuya (n.20 above).

Jakkie Cilliers, ‘Resource wars – A New Type of Insurgency’, in Cilliers and C. Dietrich (eds), Angola's War Economy. The Role of Oil and Diamonds, Pretoria: Institute for Strategic Studies, 2000.

Interview with Dr L. Kapungu, Director, Centre for Peace Initiatives (formerly UN Lessons Learnt Unit, Harare, 4 June 2002.

P. Sibanda, ‘Lessons From UN Peacekeeping in Africa: From UNAVEM to MONUA’ in Jakkie Cilliers and Greg Mills (eds), From Peacekeeping to Complex Emergencies. Peace Support Missions in Africa, Johannesburg: South African Institute of International Affairs, 1999, pp.119–20.

Accessed at www.un.org/Depts/DPKO Missions/Unavem2/UnavemIIBhtm.

SWAPO and the Democratic Turnhalle Alliance secured 41 and 21 seats respectively. Five of the eight smaller parties shared the remaining nine seats.

United Nations, The Blue Helmets (n.1 above), p.273.

Cox (see n.19 above), p.84.

Interview with Dr L. Kapungu (n.36 above).

Margaret Anstee, review of K. Maier, Angola: Promises and Lies, London: Serif, 1996, accessed at www.riia.org/baf/reviews/maier.htm.

K. Matlosa, ‘Angola: Can Structural adjustment Lead to Peace,’ in G. Harris (ed.), Recovery from Armed Conflict in Developing Countries, London: Routledge, 1999, p.266.

Angola Peace Monitor, Vol.3, No.3, 30 Nov. 1996, accessed at www.reliefweb.int.

Accessed at www.reliefweb.int/ocha_ol/pub/humrep97/demob.html.

Vines (see n.26 above), p.15.

The Daily News (Harare), 17 Oct. 2001.

According to the Secretary General only 27.4 per cent of the costs were covered.

Angola Peace Monitor Issue No.2, Vol.III, 30 Oct. 1996, accessed at www.reliefweb.int

United Nations, The Blue Helmets (n.1 above), p.221.

P. Manning, ‘Namibia's Independence: What has Happened to UN Resolution 435?’ Review of African Political Economy, No.44, 1989, p.68.

N.J. Colleta, M. Kostner and I. Wiedohofer, The Transition from War to Peace in Sub-Saharan Africa, Washington, DC: World Bank, 1996, p.48.

Interview with C.J. Tsokodayi, Under-Secretary, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Harare, 10 Sept. 2002.

Report of the Panel of Experts on Violations of Security Council Sanctions Against UNITA, accessed at www.un.org/News/dh/latest/angolareport_eng.htm

Vines (n.26 above), p.22.