When Peacekeeping Intersects with La Francophonie: Scope, Significance and Implications

Abstract

Drawing upon the authors' experience and work with the Francophone Research Network on Peace Operations in Montreal, developing and implementing peacekeeping capacity-building projects for French-speaking countries in bilateral and multilateral contexts, this article critically explores the intersection of peace operations and the francophone spaces. The argument is that there has been an increasing ‘francophone fact’ or a ‘francophonization’ of peace operations. The article explains this emergence and examines its implications that, we argue, extend beyond the francophone space. The article suggests that the increasing importance of the ‘francophone fact’ in peacekeeping is the result of three reinforcing dynamics: (1) the reality of UN deployments in the past decade with more than a half of the blue helmets deployed in francophone settings; (2) the consequent creation of specific needs for the ‘good functioning’ of multidimensional peace operations; and (3) an incomplete but undeniable ‘appropriation’ of peace operations by francophone states and organizations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank Hiba Zerrougui, research assistant at the Francophone Research Network on Peace Operations (ROP) in Montreal, for collecting the data.

Notes

Justin Massie and David Morin, ‘Francophonie et opérations de paix: Vers une appropriation géoculturelle’ [Francophonie and Peace Operations: Towards a Geo-cultural Appropriation], Études internationales, Vol.42, No.3, 2011, pp.313-36.

Data concerning troop contributing countries are available on the DPKOs website (at: www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/resources/statistics/contributors.shtml).

118,535 deployed personnel, including 99,943 police forces, military personnel or military experts.

Since January 2010, this mission falls under the purview of the UN Department of Political Affairs (DPA).

There is an abundant literature debating the efficiency and success of peace operations. Notable contributions include (in alphabetical order): Paul F. Diehl, Jennifer Reifschneider and Paul R. Hensel, ‘United Nations Intervention and Recurring Conflict’, International Organization, Vol.50, No.4, 1996, pp.683–700; Michael W. Doyle and Nicholas Sambanis, Making War and Building Peace: United Nations Peace Operations, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2006; Virginia P. Fortna, Does Peacekeeping Work? Shaping Belligerents' Choices After Civil War, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2008; J. Michael Greig and Paul F. Diehl, ‘The Peacekeeping-Peacemaking Dilemma’, International Studies Quarterly, Vol.49, No.4, 2005, pp.621–45; Birger Heldt, ‘Are Intrastate Peacekeeping Operations less Likely to Succeed? Some Statistical Evidence’, International Relations Institute Review, Vol.6, No.1, 2001/2002, pp.111–35; Birger Heldt, ‘UN-led or Non-UN-led Peacekeeping Operations?’, International Relations Institute Review, Vol.9, No.2, 2004, pp.113–38; Lise Morjé Howard, UN Peacekeeping in Civil Wars, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008; Dennis C. Jett, Why Peacekeeping Fails, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999; Jean Krasno, Bradd C. Hayes and Donald C. Daniel (eds), Leveraging for Success in United Nations Peace Operations, Westport, CT: Praeger, 2003; Nicholas Sambanis and Jonah Schulhofer-Wohl, ‘Evaluating Multilateral Interventions in Civil Wars: A Comparison of UN and Non-UN Peace Operations’, in Dimitri Bourantonis and Kostas Ifantis (eds), Multilateralism and Security Institutions in an Era of Globalization, London: Routledge, 2008, pp.252–87; Barbara Walter, Committing to Peace: The Successful Settlement of Civil Wars, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2002; Thomas G. Weiss (ed.), The United Nations and Civil Wars, Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner, 1995.

Thea Clark and Terry Moon, ‘Interoperability for Joint and Coalition Operations’, Australian Defence Force Journal, No.151, 2001, (at: www.defence.gov.au/publications/dfj/adfj151.pdf), p.24.

The four national languages are Kilonga, Tshiluba, Lingala and Swahili. French is the language of the administration.

Clark and Moon (see n.6 above), p.32.

Joint Warfighting Center, Joint Task Force Commander's Handbook for Peace Operations, Suffolk, VA: Joint Warfighting Center/USAF, 1997 (at: http://ics.leeds.ac.uk/papers/pmt/exhibits/1920/PeaceOps.pdf).

Robert A. Rubinstein, Diana M. Keller and Michael E. Scherger, ‘Culture and Interoperability in Integrated Missions’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.15, No.4, 2008, pp.540–55. See also, Rubinstein, ‘Cultural Aspects of Peacekeeping: Notes on the Substance of Symbols’, Millennium: Journal of International Studies, Vol.22, No.3, 1993, pp.547–55.

Béatrice Pouligny, Peace Operations Seen from Below: UN Missions and Local People, Bloomfield, CT: Kumarian, 2006.

See Bambi B. Schieffelin and Elinor Ochs (eds), Language Socialization across Cultures, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

See the following reports of the United Nations Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: UN docs A/62/19 (2008), para.186; A/63/19 (2009), para.168; A/64/19 (2010), para.213; A/65/19 (2011), para.261. In 2009 and 2010, the Special Committee noted the efforts made by the police division and the office of military affairs in recruiting French-speaking peacekeepers, especially police officers, to address specific requirements of peacekeeping operations (respectively paras.171, 216). UN Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations (at: www.un.org/en/peacekeeping/ctte/spcmt_rep.htm).

See the following reports of the United Nations Special Committee on Peacekeeping Operations: UN docs A/62/19 (2008) paras.186–188; A/63/19 (2009) paras.168–71; A/64/19 (2010) paras.213–16; A/65/19 (2011) paras.261–63.

United Nations, ‘Successful Peacekeepers Need a Strong Mandate and Adequate Resources, says Secretary-General to the Security Council’, UN Press Release SG/SM/9311 SC/8096 PKO/107 (at: www.un.org/News/fr-press/docs/2004/SGSM9311.doc.htm).

This section draws upon the conclusions and data from Massie and Morin (see n.1 above).

Bamako regional forum, 15–17 June 2009 and Yaoundé regional forum 8–10 November 2009 on francophone participation in UN peacekeeping. The two forums were organized by La Francophonie, with the financial assistance of the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (Canada) and the technical assistance of the Réseau francophone de recherche sur les opérations de paix. For more details, see www.operationspaix.net/21-activites-et-seminaires-forum-regional-de-bamako.html; and www.operationspaix.net/22-activites-et-seminaires-forum-regional-de-yaounde.html

Technical meeting, ‘Francophone Training Capacities on Peacekeeping’, Paris, 30 Jun.–1 Jul. 2011.

Alex J. Bellamy and Paul D. Williams, ‘Who's Keeping the Peace? Regionalization and Contemporary Peace Operations’, International Security, Vol.29, No.4, 2005, pp.157–95; Rosemary Durward, ‘Security Council Authorization for Regional Peace Operations: A Critical Analysis’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.13, No.3, 2006, pp.350–65; Justin Morris and Hilaire McCoubrey, ‘Regional Peacekeeping in the Post-Cold War Era’, International Peacekeeping, Vol.6, No.2, 1999, pp.129–51.

Benedikt Franke and Romain Esmenjaud, ‘Who Owns African Ownership? The Africanisation of Security and its Limits’, South African Journal of International Affairs, Vol.15, No.2, 2008, pp.137–58 (at p.137).

Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origins and Spread of Nationalism, London: Verso, 1991.

See Sandrine Perrot and Mountaga Diagne, ‘Étude documentaire sur la contribution francophone aux opérations de maintien de la paix de l'ONU’ [Documentary Study of Francophone Contribution to UN Peacekeeping], Montreal/Ottawa: Francophone Research Network on Peace Operations (ROP) and Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 2007.

The Mali Federation was a short-lived union (1959–60) between the autonomous territories of the Sudanese Republic and Senegal. Upon Senegal's secession the Sudanese Republic became the Republic of Mali.

However, it is worth noting that using a more restrictive, operational definition of francophone states, the numbers would have probably been lower since this number includes countries that are culturally ‘francophile’ or others that are multilingual. Given the available data, there is no way to ascertain whether these countries deployed French-speaking contingents in francophone settings or not.

Jean-Marie Guéhenno, ‘Address to the Bamako Forum on the Francophone Participation to Peace Keeping: Practices and Parameters’, Bamako, Mali, June 15–17, 2009.

See General Alassane Kpémbi Massouhoudou, ‘Coopération militaire Bénin-Belgique: un exemple de partenariat dans les opérations de maintien de la paix’ [Benin–Belgium Military Cooperation: An Example of Partnership in Peacekeeping Operations], 2009 (at: www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENTTEXTE/4682.pdf). Lt-Col. Junior de Fabribeckers, ‘Coopération militaire Bénin-Belgique: Engagement commun dans les opérations de maintien de la paix en Afrique’ [Benin–Belgium Military Cooperation: A Common Enagement in Peacekeeping Operations in Africa], 2009 (at: www.operationspaix.net/DATA/DOCUMENTTEXTE/4709.pdf).

The first avatar of the OIF, the Agency for Cultural and Technical Cooperation (ACCT), was born in Niamey in 1970. It aimed to use the French language to promote solidarity, development and cooperation through continuous dialogue between ‘civilizations’. The ACCT became the Intergovernmental Agency of la Francophonie in 1998 and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie in 2005. The OIF gradually developed a political dimension most notably with the introduction, in 1986, of regular conferences of heads of state and government, also known as Francophonie Summits. The political dimension was formally integrated into the institutional structure of la Francophonie at the Hanoi Summit in 1997 and a secretary-general was elected.

Agence Intergouvernementale de Francophonie, ‘Bamako Declaration’, Bamako, Mali, 3 Nov. 2000, p.8 (at: http://apf.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/decla_bamako-2.pdf).

OIF, ‘Conflict Prevention and Human Security’, Saint Boniface Declaration, 14 May 2006, p.4 (at: www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/Declaration_Saint-Boniface.pdf).

OIF, ‘État des pratiques de la démocratie, des droits et des libertés dans l'espace francophone’ [State of Democratic Practices, Human Rights and Liberties in the Francophone Space], Paris: Délégation aux Droits de l'Hommes et à la Démocratie et à la paix (DHDP), 2006, p.18.

OIF (see n.29 above), p.69; UN, ‘Report of the Secretary-General on Cooperation between the United Nations and Regional and other Organisations’, UN doc., A/61/256, 16 Aug. 2006; UN, ‘Report of the Secretary-General on Cooperation between the United Nations and regional and other organisations’, UN doc., A/63/228-S/2008/531, 8 Aug. 2008.

OIF (see n.29 above).

Ibid., p.197.

Ibid., p.201.

Julia Marion, ‘L’évolution de la coopération entre l'ONU et les organisations régionales. L'exemple de l'organisation internationale de la Francophonie' [The Evolution of Cooperation between the UN and Regional Organizations. The example of ‘l'organisation internationale de la Francophonie’], in Michel Guillou and Phan Thi Hoa Trang (eds), La Francophonie sous l'angle des théories des relations internationales [Francophonie from an International Relations Perspective], Paris: Iframond, 2008, p.200.

Abdou Diouf, ‘La Francophonie en Afrique. Quel avenir?’ [Francophonie in Africa. What of the Future?], Paris: OIF, 2010.

Hugo Sada, ‘Les perspectives et besoins pour la médiation de la Francophonie’ [Perspectives on, and Need for Francophonie Mediation], Retraite sur la médiation de la Francophonie [Proceedings of the Francophonie Mediation Retreat], Geneva: OIF/DDHDP, 2007.

See for example, Mamadou Badji and Jean-Marie Crouzatier, ‘Solidarité en Francophonie. Réalité ou faux-semblant?’ [Solidarity in Francophonie. Reality or Pretence?], Cluj-Napoca: Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, 2010.

Abdou Diouf, ‘Rapport du Secrétaire Général de la Francophonie. De Ouagadougou à Bucarest 2004–06’, Paris: OIF, 2006, p.3.

For an early exploration of these issues see Rodrigo Tavares and Luis Bras Bernardino, ‘Speaking the Language of Security: The Commonwealth, the Francophonie and the CPLP in Conflict Management in Africa’, Conflict, Security & Development, Vol.11, No.5, 2011, pp.607–36.