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ABSTRACT
This paper addresses two issues that have only been marginally discussed in the literature about peace operations: First, it investigates the legitimacy of peace operations from the perspective of populations of states that receive them. Secondly, it assesses how host populations perceive different types of peace interventions; by the UN, by a regional organization and by an individual state. A conceptual framework of the local legitimacy of peace operations is applied to an analysis of the perceptions of the French, ECOWAS and UN interventions in Mali in 2013–14. Local perception was measured by an analysis of Malian newspaper articles and interviews with (mainly southern) civil society actors. The results suggest that local actors negotiate between pragmatic and ideological conceptions of legitimacy. While French forces are pragmatically valued for their military achievements, they receive little ideological legitimacy. The regional force has high ideological legitimacy but disappoints in its performance on the ground. The UN force scores low in ideological legitimacy and is ambiguous in terms of pragmatic legitimacy.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Professor Stephanie Hofmann for her solid academic advice and her guidance throughout the entire project. I would also like to thank Professor Mohammad-Mahmoud Mohamedou, Professor Elisabeht Prügl, Françoise Grange Omokaro and Boukary Barry for their helpful suggestions and comments. Finally, I am indebted to all of my interviewees who have shared their knowledge and experiences so openly with me.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
About the author
Sophia Sabrow is originally from Berlin, Germany. She did her undergraduate studies in Political Science and Economics at University of Cologne and at Sciences Po Paris. During her Master’s program at the Graduate Institute, Geneva, she focused particularly on the dynamics of peace and conflict in Africa. She has lived for several years in Sub-Saharan Africa where she tried to bridge the gap between policy and practice by working for development agencies on the one hand, and conducting field research, on the other. She also writes occasionally as a freelance journalist about international politics for German newspapers. After her latest posting in Kinshasa, DR Congo, with the German Development Agency GIZ, she has now entered the diplomatic service of the Federal Foreign Office of Germany.
ORCID
Sophia Sabrow http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4150-8938
Notes
1 Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?”; Bellamy, “Motives, Outcomes, Intent and the Legitimacy of Humanitarian Intervention”; Hurd, “Legitimacy, Power, and the Symbolic Life of the UN Security Council”; Wheeler, Saving Strangers.
2 See, for example, Autesserre, Peaceland; Giffen, “Community Perceptions as a Priority in Protecting and Peacekeeping”; Donati et al., “Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions in Multi-dimensional UN Peacekeeping,” 16–18; Niels Nagelhus Schia, Ingvild Magnæs Gjelsvik, and John Karlsrud, “Connections and Disconnections,” 29.
3 “Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations,” 16; see also Radhika Coomaraswamy, “A Global Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325,” 15–16; “Challenge of Sustaining Peace,” 19.
4 Giffen, “Community Perceptions as a Priority in Protecting and Peacekeeping”; Donati et al., “Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions in Multi-dimensional UN Peacekeeping,” 12–21.
5 Autesserre, “Going Micro,” 492–500.
6 Edelstein, “Occupational Hazards”; Talentino, “Perceptions of Peacebuilding”; Rubinstein, “Intervention and Culture”; “Challenge of Sustaining Peace,” 21; Autesserre, Peaceland.
7 Yannis, “State Collapse and Its Implications for Peace-Building and Reconstruction”; Brahimi, “Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (The Brahimi Report),” 11.
8 Rubinstein, “Intervention and Culture”; Hurd, “Legitimacy, Power, and the Symbolic Life of the UN Security Council”; Dorn, “Regional Peacekeeping Is Not the Way.”
9 Diehl, “Institutional Alternatives to Traditional U.N. Peacekeeping,” 215–16.
10 Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?”; Sambanis and Schulhofer-Wohl, “Evaluating Multilateral Interventions in Civil Wars.”
11 The respective peace missions are: France: Opération Serval; ECOWAS: African-led International Support Mission to Mali, short: AFISMA, in French: MISMA; UN: Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali, short: MINUSMA.
12 Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?,” 157; Fortna and Howard, “Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature,” 285.
13 Alex J. Bellamy, Stuart Griffith, and Paul D. Williams, Understanding Peacekeeping; United Nations, “United Nations Peacekeeping Operations,” 19.
14 Friesendorf and Penksa, “Militarized Law Enforcement in Peace Operations”; Fortna and Howard, “Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature,” 285; Karlsrud, “The UN at War.”
15 Laurie Nathan, “The Peacemaking Effectiveness of Regional Organizations,” 1–4; Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?”; UNSC, “Cooperation Between United Nations, Regional, Subregional Organizations ‘Mainstay’ of International Relations, Security Council Hears Throughout Day-Long Debate” (at: www.un.org/press/en/2013/sc11087.doc.htm); “Cooperation Between the United Nations and Regional and Other Organizations”; UNSC, “Resolution 1631 (2005).”
16 Seven by the African Union (AU) (Rwanda, Burundi, Comoros, Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), Sudan, Somalia, Central African Republic); five by ECOWAS (Liberia twice, Sierra Leone, Côte d’Ivoire, Mali); two by the South African Development Community (Lesotho, DRC), one by the Central African Economic and Monetary Community; SIPRI, “SIPRI Multilateral Peace Operations Database,” Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, 10 June 2015 (at: www.sipri.org/databases/pko).
17 One by the UK, five by France, one by South Africa, one by Togo.
18 Suchman, “Managing Legitimacy,” 574.
19 Rubinstein, “Intervention and Culture”; Hurd, “Legitimacy, Power, and the Symbolic Life of the UN Security Council”; Dorn, “Regional Peacekeeping Is Not the Way,” 1–4.
20 See, for example, Weber, Wirtschaft Und Gesellschaft, 726–30.
21 Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?” 225–8; Weber, Politik Als Beruf.
22 Pouligny, Peace Operations Seen from below, 190–6; Edelstein, “Occupational Hazards,” 58.
23 “Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations,” 14; “Challenge of Sustaining Peace,” 21; Radhika Coomaraswamy, “A Global Study on the Implementation of United Nations Security Council Resolution 1325,” 14–15.
24 Giffen, “Community Perceptions as a Priority in Protecting and Peacekeeping,” 6–13; Donati et al., “Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions in Multi-Dimensional UN Peacekeeping,” 36–42.
25 Talentino, “Perceptions of Peacebuilding,” 153.
26 “Challenge of Sustaining Peace,” 21; Fortna, Does Peacekeeping Work?, 127–50; Richmond, “Peace During and After the Age of Intervention,” 509–19; United Nations, “United Nations Peacekeeping Operations,” 36–40.
27 Hellmüller, “The Power of Perceptions,” 219–32; Autesserre, “Hobbes and the Congo”; Freire and Lopes, “Peacebuilding in Timor-Leste”; Millar, van der Lijn, and Verkoren, “Peacebuilding Plans and Local Reconfigurations”; Tanja Hohe, “The Clash of Paradigms”; “Report of the High-Level Independent Panel on Peace Operations,” 48; “Challenge of Sustaining Peace,” 18.
28 Autesserre, Peaceland, 102–5; Donati et al., “Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions in Multi-Dimensional UN Peacekeeping,” 18; Giffen, “Community Perceptions as a Priority in Protecting and Peacekeeping.”
29 Brahimi, “Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (The Brahimi Report),” 11; Yannis, “State Collapse and Its Implications for Peace-Building and Reconstruction.”
30 Adeleke, “The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa,” 571.
31 Christopher Clapham, “Being Peacekept.”
32 Ayoob, “Humanitarian Intervention and State Sovereignty,” 92; Verwey, “The Legality of Humanitarian Intervention after the Cold War,” 114.
33 Brahimi, “Report of the Panel on United Nations Peace Operations (The Brahimi Report),” ix.
34 Sambanis and Schulhofer-Wohl, “Evaluating Multilateral Interventions in Civil Wars,” 254–5; Rubinstein, “Peacekeeping and the Return of Imperial Policing.”
35 Ayoob, “Humanitarian Intervention and State Sovereignty,” 95–6; Edelstein, “Occupational Hazards,” 69–73; Finnemore, The Purpose of Intervention, 78–83; Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?”
36 Fortna and Howard, “Pitfalls and Prospects in the Peacekeeping Literature,” 294; Talentino, “Perceptions of Peacebuilding,” 166.
37 Dorn, “Regional Peacekeeping Is Not the Way,” 2.
38 Rubinstein, “Intervention and Culture,” 537.
39 Pouligny, Peace Operations Seen from below, 186.
40 Millar, van der Lijn, and Verkoren, “Peacebuilding Plans and Local Reconfigurations”; Razack, “Men from the ‘Clean Snows of Petawawa.’”
41 Hurd, “Legitimacy, Power, and the Symbolic Life of the UN Security Council,” 44.
42 Diehl, “Institutional Alternatives to Traditional U.N. Peacekeeping,” 216–17.
43 Bobrow and Boyer, “Maintaining System Stability.”
44 Adler and Crawford, “Constructing a Mediterranean Region,” 3.
45 Uvin, Bourque, and Cohen, “Regional Solutions to Regional Problems.”
46 Acharya, “Norm Subsidiarity and Regional Orders.”
47 Adeleke, “The Politics and Diplomacy of Peacekeeping in West Africa,” 571 and 589; Diehl, “Institutional Alternatives to Traditional U.N. Peacekeeping,” 213; Kenkel, “South America's Emerging Power,” 656.
48 Acharya, “Norm Subsidiarity and Regional Orders.”
49 Diehl, “Institutional Alternatives to Traditional U.N. Peacekeeping,” 216–17; Morris and McCoubrey, “Regional Peaekeeping in the Post-Cold War Era,” 141–3; Xenia Avezov, Jaïr Van Der Lijn, and Marius Müller-Hennig, “Peace Operations in a Changing World Order,” 3–4; Mauricio Artiñano et al., “Adapting and Evolving,” 21–2.
50 Xenia Avezov, Jaïr Van Der Lijn, and Marius Müller-Hennig, “Peace Operations in a Changing World Order,” 3; Arthur Boutellis and Paul D. Williams, “Peace Operations, the African Union, and the United Nations,” 12.
51 Nowrojee, “Joining Forces,” 578–80.
52 Mauricio Artiñano et al., “Adapting and Evolving,” 22.
53 Berman, Peacekeeping in Africa, 113–17; Meinken, “Militärische Kapazitäten Und Fähigkeiten Afrikanischer Staaten.”
54 Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?,” 170; Diehl, “Institutional Alternatives to Traditional U.N. Peacekeeping,” 212.
55 Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?,” 167–8.
56 Entman, “Framing”; McCombs, Setting the Agenda; Tewksbury and Scheufele, “Special Issue on Framing, Agenda Setting and Priming.”
57 Heinrich, “Studying Civil Society across the World,” 213.
58 Donati et al., “Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions in Multi-Dimensional UN Peacekeeping,” 22–7.
59 Obadare, “Civil Society in Sub-Saharan Africa,” 190–1; Pouligny, Peace Operations Seen from below, 67–86.
60 US State Department, “International Religious Freedom Report 2005: Mali.”
61 UNICEF, “Information by Country, Mali, Statistics. http://www.unicef.org/infobycountry/mali_statistics.html.”
62 Donati et al., “Understanding and Integrating Local Perceptions in Multi-Dimensional UN Peacekeeping,” 29–30.
63 Gagliardone and Stremlau, “Public Opinion Research in a Conflict Zone,” 1106.
64 Ibid., 1105.
65 World Bank, “International Tourism, Number of Arrivals.”
66 Lecocq, That Desert Is Our Country, chap.6; Lode, “Mali's Peace Process”; Keita, “Conflict and Conflict Resolution in the Sahel.”
67 Lecocq, That Desert Is Our Country, 3.
68 ICG, “Mali: Security, Dialogue and Meaningful Reform”; UNSC, “Resolution 2085 (2012).”
69 UNSC, “Resolution 2100 (2013).”
70 MINUSMA, “Facts and Figures.”
71 Global Peace Operations Review, “UN Peacekeeping Missions.”
72 UNSC, “Security Council Report 2013, Chronology of Events, Mali/Sahel.”
73 “Barkhane: Un An d’Opérations.”
74 UNSC, “Resolution 2227 (2015).”
75 ICG, “Mali : La Paix À Marche Forcée ?”; ICG, “Mali: La Paix Venue D’en Bas?”; Conway Weddington, “Malian Peace at Risk.”
76 The percentages only refer to the number of codes attributed to the newspaper articles (see Section 3).
77 Info Matin, “IBK À Abidjan, Ouaga, Lomé et Niamey”; translation by the author.
78 L’Essor, “Special Serval An I: Konna: Lente Remission.”
79 L’Essor, “Special Serval An I: Analyse: Nos Amis.”
80 ICG, “Mali: Security, Dialogue and Meaningful Reform,” 13; FES Bamako, “Enquête D’opinion « Que Veulent Les Maliens ? »,” 18; ORB International, “Mali Public Opinion Poll.”
81 Bergamaschi and Diawara, “The French Military Intervention in Mali: Not Exactly Françafrique but Definitely Post-Colonial,” 140–1.
82 Interview by author with an NGO promoting development through infrastructure and education; translation by the author.
83 Info Matin, “Retrait de La Présence Militaire Française Au Mali.”
84 Interview by author with an NGOs promoting equal development for women; Interview by author with an association promoting security in Northern Mali; Interview by author with an NGO promoting democracy; Interview by author with an NGO promoting peace and security; Interview by author with an NGO promoting arts and culture.
85 L’Essor, “Mali: Les Enfants Sourient Encore Aux Français … Mais Pour Combien de Temps?”
86 Info Matin, “Nord Du Mali : Le Gouvernement Malien Face À L’ingérence Française.”
87 Info Matin, “Sommet de L’élisée: Le Sens D’une Participation.”
88 Info Matin, “IBK À Abidjan, Ouaga, Lomé et Niamey”; Info Matin, “Nouvel an 2014 : Les Instructions Du Président IBK Au Gouvernement.”
89 Info Matin, “Sommet de L’élisée: Le Sens D’une Participation.”
90 Info Matin, “Gestion de La Crise Malienne: Paris Dans Le Piège de Kidal.”
91 Interview by author with an NGO advancing theatre and culture.
92 Nkosazana Dlamini Zuma, “Report on the Operationalisation of the Rapid Deployment Capability of the African Standby Force”; “Other Regions Cooperate to Promote Peace in Africa”; “ECOWAS Gets AU's Commendation on Peace-Keeping Operations in Africa.”
93 Nowrojee, “Joining Forces,” 578–80.
94 Interview by author with a regional Muslim association.
95 L’Essor, “Contingent Tchadien de La MISMA. 14.05.2013”; L’Essor, “Kidal : l’Armée Malienne, La MINUSMA et Serval Organisent La Coordination.”
96 Info Matin, “Le Mali Reconnaissant Envers Le Benin, Le Nigeria et Le Burkina. 19.08.2013”; Info Matin, “Gestion Post Crise Au Mali. 05.09.2013.”
97 Interview by author with a laborers' union.
98 Global Peace Operations Review, “UN Peacekeeping Missions.”
99 Info Matin, “Retrait de La Présence Militaire Française Au Mali.”
100 Info Matin, “IBK À Abidjan, Ouaga, Lomé et Niamey.”
101 Acharya, “Norm Subsidiarity and Regional Orders.”
102 Info Matin, “Tribune de l’ONU: Le Discours Historique Du President IBK. 30.09.2013”; L’Essor, “Le President Ibrahim Boubacar Keita Aux Nations Unies.”
103 Interview by author with the head of an organisation representing the Muslim community.
104 See, for example, Bellamy and Williams, “Who's Keeping the Peace?”
105 Info Matin, “Lutte Contre Le Terrorisme : Les 150 Soldats de Serval Retournent Au Mal.”
106 Info Matin, “Les Assises Nationales Du Nord”; Info Matin, “Impasse Sur La Position Gouvernementale”; L’Essor, “Mali: Les Enfants Sourient Encore Aux Français … Mais Pour Combien de Temps?”
107 Interview by author with the head of an organisation representing the Muslim community.