Hailing in the Face of Covid-19: On the Uses and Abuses of Heroism

Abstract

In this paper, we examine the paradoxes of hailing health care workers as “Covid-19 heroes” in Canada and the United Kingdom. We ask how public discourses—primarily by governments, politicians, mainstream media, but also by racially minoritized groups and migrant-led associations—frame the ambiguous social and legal status of mostly women of color “essential” health care workers during the pandemic. We argue that hailing is a form of conditional inclusion. Hailing involves both the camouflaging of individuals’ low-class status, precarious position in the workplace, gendered and racially minoritized positionality and insecure/non-permanent immigration status on the one hand, as well as the potential for resistance, emancipation, wider organizing, and claims-making on the other. Through a focus on Filipino/a workers because of their high levels of representation as health care staff in both contexts, our empirical analysis underlines that hailing as conditional inclusion is asymmetrical and unequal. It enables co-optation and deflection from structural inequalities as the price of conditional inclusion of selected individuals and groups. However, at the same time, hailing generates resistance. Through “tiny openings” these contradictions are named, and the binary language of inclusion/exclusion is challenged.

Acknowledgements

This research was made possible by generous funding from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (SSHRC).

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Maggie Boulton, Anna Garnett, and Fiona Webster, “A Foucauldian Discourse Analysis of Media Reporting on the Nurse-as-Hero during COVID- 19,” Nursing Inquiry 29, no. 3 (2022): e12471. https://doi.org/10.1111/nin.12471; Shan Mohammed, Elizabeth Peter, Tieghan Killackey, and Jane Maciver, “The ‘Nurse as Hero’ Discourse in the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Poststructural Discourse Analysis,” International Journal of Nursing Studies 117, (2021): 103887.

2 We will alternate between Filipina/o and Philippine depending on the source cited. Migrant organisations in both the United Kingdom and Canada use the term Filipino/a in their self-definitions and communications; Anakbayan Ottawa, “Fighting Anti-Asian Racism is Fighting Imperialism” (Part of a Series of Workshops titled Say No to Anti-Asian Racism—A Path Forward. Session 3: How to Address Anti-Asian Racism. Presented by Nicole Sudiacal Secretary General, Anakbayan Ottawa Chairperson, Anakbayan Canada, Ottawa, 26 June, from 1:30 to 2:30 pm, 2021); Anakbayan Ottawa, “‘Who Are We?’ Anakbayan Ottawa - a National Democratic Youth Organization,” 2022. http://anakbayanottawa.com; Filipino UK Nurses Association. Written Evidence Submitted by the Filipino UK Nurses Association (2020); Kanlungan Filipino Consortium, and RAPAR, A Chance to Feel Safe: Precarious Filipino Migrants amidst the UK’s Coronavirus Outbreak (London, 2020). https://kanlungan.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/A-chance-to-feel-safe-report.pdf

3 Ruth Wodakm, “The Discourse-Historical Approach” in Methods of Critical Discourse Analysis, edited by Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer (London: Sage, 2001), 63–94.

4 Louis Althusser “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses (Notes towards an Investigation)” in Lenin and Philosophy and Other Essays, edited by Louis Althusser (Surrey: The Gresham Press, 1977), 121–73; Leah Bassel, Pierre Monforte, and Kamran Khan, “Making Political Citizens? Migrants’ Narratives of Naturalization in the United Kingdom,” Citizenship Studies 22, no. 3 (2018): 225–42.

5 Judith Butler, Bodies That Matter. on the Discursive Limits of “Sex” (New York: Routledge,1993).

6 Gölz Olmo, “Heroes and the Many: Typological Reflections on the Collective Appeal of the Heroic. Revolutionary Iran and Its Implications.” Thesis Eleven 165, no. 1 (2021): 53–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/07255136211033168.

7 Caitríona L. Cox, “Healthcare Heroes’: Problems with Media Focus on Heroism from Healthcare Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Journal of Medical Ethics 46, no. 8 (2020): 510–3.

8 Ibid.

9 Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness and the Politics of Empowerment (New York: Routledge, 2000). Leah Bassel and Akwugo Emejulu, Minority Women and Austerity: Survival and Resistance in France and Britain (Bristol: Bristol University Press, 2017).

10 Althusser, “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.”

11 Sara Ahmed, Strange Encounters - Embodied Others in Post-Coloniality (London/New York: Routledge, 2000).

12 Butler, Bodies That Matter.

13 Katherine Nasol and Valerie Francisco-Menchavez, “Filipino Home Care Workers: Invisible Frontline Workers in the COVID-19 Crisis in the United States,” American Behavioral Scientist 65, no. 10 (2021): 1365–83.

14 Ibid., 15.

15 Bonnie McElhinny, Lisa M. Davidson, John Paul C. Catungal, Ethel Tungohan, and Roland Sintos Coloma, “Spectres of (In)visibility: Filipina/o Labour, Culture, and Youth in Canada.” In Filipinos in Canada: Disturbing Invisibility, edited by Roland Sintos Coloma, Bonnie McElhinny, Ethel Tungohan, John Paul C. Catungal and Lisa M. Davidson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012), 5–45.

16 Winter, Elke, Us, Them and Others: Pluralism and National Identity in Diverse Societies (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2011).

17 Bridget Anderson, Us and Them? The Dangerous Politics of Immigration Control (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013).

18 Ethel Tungohan, Rupa Banerjee, Wayne Chu, Petronila Cleto, Conely de Leon, Mila Garcia, Philip Kelly, Marco Luciano, Cynthia Palmaria, and Christopher Sorio, “After the Live-In Caregiver Program: Filipina Caregivers’ Experiences of Graduated and Uneven Citizenship,” Canadian Ethnic Studies 47, no. 1 (2015): 87–105.

19 Anderson, Us and Them.

20 Nancy Fraser, “Contradictions of Capital and Care,” New Left Review 100 (2016): 99–117.

21 Ibid., 112.

22 Bassel and Emejulu, Minority Women and Austerity.

23 We avoid a narrow and exclusionary view of women, and thus include cis and trans women, as well as non-binary femmes.

24 Bassel and Emejulu, Minority Women and Austerity, 5.

25 Nasol and Francisco-Menchavez, “Filipino Home Care Workers.”

26 Yao Li and Harvey L. Nicholson, Jr., “When ‘Model Minorities’ Become ‘Yellow Peril’—Othering and the Racialization of Asian Americans in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Sociology Compass 15, no. 2 (2021): e12849.

27 Roland Sintos Coloma, “Too Asian?' on Racism, Paradox and Ethno-Nationalism,” Discourse: Studies in the Cultural Politics of Education 34, no. 4 (2013): 579–98.

28 Sunera Thobani, Exalted Subjects: Studies in the Making of Race and Nation in Canada (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2007).

29 McElhinny et al., “Spectres of (In)visibility,” 5.

30 Charlene Ronquillo, Geertje Boschma, Sabrina T. Wong, and Linda Quiney, “Beyond Greener Pastures: Exploring Contexts Surrounding Filipino Nurse Migration in Canada through Oral History,” Nursing Inquiry 18, no. 3 (2011): 262–75; Valerie G. Damasco, “The Recruitment of Filipino Healthcare Professionals to Canada in the 1960s.” In Filipinos in Canada: Disturbing Invisibility, edited by Roland Sintos Coloma, Bonnie McElhinny, Ethel Tungohan, John Paul C. Catungal and Lisa M. Davidson (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2012), 97–122.

31 Tomoko Hayakawa, “Skill Levels and Inequality in Migration: A Case Study of Filipino Migrants in the UK,” Asian and Pacific Migration Journal 29, no. 3 (2020): 333–57.

32 David M. Smith and Nicola Gillin, “Filipino Nurse Migration to the UK: Understanding Migration Choices from an Ontological Security-Seeking Perspective,” Social Science & Medicine 276, (2021): 113881.

33 Ibid.

34 Catherine Ceniza Choy, Empire of Care. Nursing and migration in Filipino American History (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003).

35 Statistics Canada, The Contribution of Immigrants and Population Groups Designated as Visible Minorities to Nurse Aide, Orderly and Patient Service Associate Occupations (Government of Canada, 2020).

36 Statistics Canada, The Contribution of Immigrants and Population Groups Designated as Visible Minorities to Nurse Aide, Orderly and Patient Service Associate Occupations (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2020). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/45-28-0001/2020001/article/00036-eng.htm; Statistics Canada, The Daily. A Labour Market Snapshot of South Asian, Chinese and Filipino Canadians during the Pandemic (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2021). https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/daily-quotidien/210521/dq210521b-eng.htm.

37 Ibid.

38 Interior Health, “Principles for Definition of Essential Health-care Workers,” 2020, https://www.interiorhealth.ca/YourEnvironment/CommunicableDiseaseControl/covid19/IH-PH-COV-297%20Principles%20for%20Definition%20of%20Essential%20Health-Care%20Workers_31Mar2020.pdf (Last Modified 03 2020).

39 Anakbayan Ottawa, “Fighting Anti-Asian Racism.”

40 Department for Education, Children of Critical Workers and Vulnerable Children Who Can Access Schools or Educational Settings (London: Cabinet Office, 2021). https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/coronavirus-covid-19-maintaining-educational-provision/guidance-for-schools-colleges-and-local-authorities-on-maintaining-educational-provision.

41 Carl Baker, NHS Staff from Overseas: Statistics. House of Commons (London: Commons Library, 2020). https://commonslibrary.parliament.uk/research-briefings/cbp-7783/.

42 This is the official UK terminology used to present these statistics.

43 Public Health England, Disparities in the risk and outcomes of COVID-19 (London, 2020). https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/908434/Disparities_in_the_risk_and_outcomes_of_COVID_August_2020_update.pdf

44 Nira Yuval-Davis, Georgie Wemyss, and Kathryn Cassidy, “Everyday Bordering, Belonging and the Reorientation of British Immigration Legislation,” Sociology 52, no. 2 (2018): 228–44.

45 Hannah Jones, Yasmin Gunaratnam, and Gargi Bhattacharyya, Go home?: The Politics of Immigration Controversies (Manchester, England: Manchester University Press, 2017).

46 Kanlungan Filipino Consortium and RAPAR, A Chance to Feel Safe.

47 To obtain a Tier 2 visa, nurses must have first secured a certificate of sponsorship from their intended employer; Smith and Gillin, “Filipino Nurse Migration to the UK,” 5.

48 Hayakawa, “Skill Levels and Inequality in Migration,” 352.

49 Ibid., 349.

50 Kanlungan Filipino Consortium and RAPAR, A Chance to Feel Safe.

51 Wodak, “The Discourse-Historical Approach."

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53 E.g., public events organised by Ottawa’s Centertown Community Centre in June of 2021. We also became acquainted with the work of two Filipinx-led organisations in Ontario. Immigration, Refugees, and Citizenship, Settlement outcomes highlights report: summary findings from IRCC’s first settlement outcomes report 2021 (Ottawa: Government of Canada, 2021). https://epe.lac-bac.gc.ca/100/201/301/weekly_acquisitions_list-ef/2021/21-24/publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2021/ircc/Ci34-6-2021-eng.pdf.

54 Hsiu-Fang Hsieh and Sarah E. Shannon, “Three Approaches to Qualitative Content Analysis,” Qualitative Health Research 15, no. 9 (2005): 1277–88.

55 Jonathon W. Moses and Torbjorn L. Knutsen, Ways of Knowing: Competing Methodologies in Social and Political Research (Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007).

56 HC Deb (24 June 2021) vol. 697, col. 442WH. https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2021-06-24/debates/A05839E8-3479-43BB-B0F1-D2D03A7D06AE/Covid-19CommunityResponse?highlight=covid-19%20heroes#contribution-CFA1458F-4D6D-438D-84DE-6941C843C91F (accessed 21 July 2021)

57 Kanlungan Filipino Consortium and RAPAR, A Chance to Feel Safe.

58 Migrant Rights Network, Exclusion Disappointment Chaos & Exploitation: Canada’s New Short-Term Immigration Pathway (2021); Kanlungan Filipino Consortium and RAPAR, A Chance to Feel Safe.; Migrants’ Rights Network, Kanlungan Filipino Consortium, The3Million, and Migrants at Work, “The Effects of COVID-19 on Migrant Frontline Workers and People of Color.” England, 2020. https://migrantsrights.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/THE-EFFECTS-OF-COVID-19-ON-MIGRANT-FRONTLINE-WORKERS-AND-PEOPLE-OF-COLOUR.pdf

59 Ottawa Local Immigration Partnership, Impact of COVID-19 on Immigrants & Racialized Communities in Ottawa: A community Dialogue. (Ottawa, 2020). http://olip-plio.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/SummaryReport-OLIP-COVID-CommunityDialogue.pdf.

60 Anakbayan Ottawa, “Fighting Anti-Asian Racism,” June 26 2021.

61 Migrant Rights Network, Exclusion Disappointment Chaos & Exploitation.

62 Registered Nurses‘ Association of Ontario, Health Organizations Ask Everyone to Mark the One-Year Anniversary of the COVID-19 Pandemic with a Candlelight Vigil. (Toronto, 2021). https://rnao.ca/news/media-releases/health-organizations-ask-everyone-to-mark-the-one-year-anniversary-of-the-covid.

63 CNN Philippines, “Filipino Nurses Association Wins National Award in UK,” 2021, https://www.cnnphilippines.com/videos/2021/5/25/Filipino-Nurses-Association-wins-national-award-in-UK.html (last modified 25 May).

64 Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care, Ontario Supporting Frontline Heroes of COVID-19 with Pandemic Pay Long-Term Care. (Toronto: Government of Ontario, 2020). https://health.gov.on.ca/en/pro/programs/ltc/covid19.aspx.

65 HC Deb (25 June 2020) vol. 677, col. 1512. https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2020-06-25/debates/4DF10FB9-30E6-42C0-9103-BBB2C192A80D/HealthAndSocialCareWorkersRecognitionAndReward?highlight=asian%20heroes#contribution-0357BBE2-6359-44CC-AFF4-7DD775837FFD (accessed 21 July 2021)

66 Bill Gardner, “Queen’s Birthday Honours List: Marcus Rashford, Joe Wicks and Record-Breaking Quiz Host Included,” The Telegraph, 9 October 2020, https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2020/10/09/marcus-rashford-joe-wicks-record-breaking-quiz-host-covids-heroes/ (accessed 18 October 2021).

67 Caroline Davies, “Third of Queen’s Birthday Honours Go to Heroes of Pandemic,” The Guardian, 09 October 2020, UK news, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/oct/09/third-of-queens-birthday-honours-go-to-heroes-of-pandemic (accessed 18 October 2021).

68 Rogers Smith, “Modern Citizenship.” In Handbook of Citizenship Studies, edited by Engin F. Isin and Bryan S. Turner (London: Sage, 2002), 105–116.

69 Mohammed et al., “The ‘Nurse as Hero’ Discourse in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” 8.

70 Adrienne Milner, Elizabeth. Baker, Samir Jeraj, and Jabeer Butt, “Race-Ethnic and Gender Differences in Representation within the English National Health Service: A Quantitative Analysis,” BMJ Open 10, no. 2 (2020): e034258; Mohammed et al., “The ‘Nurse as Hero’ Discourse in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” 8.

71 Gölz Olmo, “Heroes and the Many.”

72 Nasol and Francisco-Menchavez, “Filipino Home Care Workers.”

73 Privy Council Office. 2020 Speech from the Throne (Ottawa: Goverment of Canada, 2020). https://www.canada.ca/en/privy-council/campaigns/speech-throne/2020/speech-from-the-throne.html.

74 Izzy Lyons, Dominic Penna, Victoria Ward, Jamie Johnson, Helena Horton, and Phoebe Southworth, “These Are the Health Workers Who Have Died from Coronavirus,” The Telegraph, 14 April 2020. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/0/nhs-workers-died-coronavirus-frontline-victims/ (accessed 18 October 2021).

75 Gina K. Velasco, Queering the Global Filipina Body Contested Nationalisms in the Filipina/o Diaspora, The Asian American Experience (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2020).

76 Anna Romina Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes: The Transnational Labor Brokering of Filipino Workers (New Brunswick, N.J: Rutgers University Press, 2010).

77 Rodriguez, Robyn M., “Migrant Heroes: Nationalism, Citizenship and the Politics of Filipino Migrant Labor.” Citizenship Studies 6, no. 3 (2002): 341–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/1362102022000011658.

78 Ben Quinn, “Coronavirus Exerts Heavy Toll on Filipino Community in UK,” The Guardian, 17 April 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/coronavirus-exerts-heavy-toll-on-filipino-community-in-uk.

79 Evelyn Nakano Glenn, “From Servitude to Service Work: Historical Continuities in the Racial Division of Paid Reproductive Labor,” Signs 18, no. 1 (1992): 1–43.

80 Choy, Empire of Care, 4.

81 Nasol and Francisco-Menchavez, “Filipino Home Care Workers.”

82 Ibid., 1368; Guevarra, Marketing Dreams, Manufacturing Heroes.

83 Barbara L. Brush and Julie. Sochalski, “International Nurse Migration: Lessons from the Philippines,” Policy, Politics & Nursing Practice 8, no. 1 (2007): 37–46.

84 Filipino UK Nurses Association. Written Evidence Submitted.

85 Kanlungan Filipino Consortium and RAPAR, A Chance to Feel Safe.

86 Haroon Siddique, “Covid-19 Worsening Plight of UK Migrants, Report Finds,” The Guardian, 29 June 2020, UK news, https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2020/jun/29/covid-19-worsening-plight-of-uk-migrants-report-finds (accessed 18 October 2021).

87 Ottawa Local Immigration Partnership, Impact of COVID-19 on Immigrants & Racialized Communities in Ottawa: A community Dialogue (Ottawa, 2020). http://olip-plio.ca/wp-content/uploads/2020/11/SummaryReport-OLIP-COVID-CommunityDialogue.pdf.

88 Ministry of Health and Long-Term Care, Ontario Supporting Frontline Heroes.

89 Adam Carter, “'Loophole’ in Ontario’s COVID-19 Long-Term Care Plan Allows Temp Workers in Multiple Homes,” CBC, 16 April 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-long-term-care-covid-coronavirus-1.5534306 (accessed 18 December 2021); Mike Crawley, “Ford Government to Unveil Stricter Rules for Temporary Work Agencies,” CBC News, 18 October 2021, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/ontario-temp-foreign-workers-agencies-1.6213249 (accessed 17 December 2021).

90 Rebecca Gilroy, “Visa Fears Mean Filipino Nurses 'Feel Unable to Say No’ during Crisis,” Nursing Times, 25 May 2020, https://www.nursingtimes.net/news/coronavirus/visa-fears-mean-filipino-nurses-feel-unable-to-say-no-during-crisis-25-05-2020/ (accessed 29 July 2021).

91 Nicholas Keung, “This Live-in Caregiver Got COVID after Her Employer Fell Sick,” The Toronto Star, 20 February2021, https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2021/02/20/this-live-in-caregiver-got-covid-after-her-employer-fell-sick-as-she-isolated-at-a-hotel-she-was-fired-via-text-message.html.

92 Cox, “Healthcare Heroes.”

93 Shannon Arvin Joaquin, “Advocates Call for More Rights for Migrant Workers amid Deaths on the Job,” The Globe and Mail, 13 June 2021, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/canada/article-advocates-call-for-more-rights-for-migrant-workers-amid-deaths-on-the/ (accessed 19 October 2021).

94 Siddique, “Covid-19 Worsening Plight of UK Migrants.”

95 Cox, “Healthcare Heroes.”

96 Patricia Hill Collins, Black Feminist Thought.

97 HC Deb (25 June 2020) vol. 677, col. 1512.

98 HL Deb (May 19 2020) vol. 803, col. 991. Available at: https://hansard.parliament.uk/Lords/2020-05-19/debates/7452AAAC-3B87-400E-B80F-E94D70B9C9B1/Covid-19BAMENHSStaff?highlight=covid-19%20filipino#contribution-05F0FFD3-4836-47CD-9129-9B63C95AD728 (accessed 21 July 2021)

99 Ibid.

100 Dakshana Bascaramurty and Tavia Grant, “Essential Jobs, Multigenerational Homes: Filipino Canadians Are Bearing the Brunt of the Coronavirus Outbreak,” The Globe and Mail, 6 April 2021; Ontario Agency for Health Protection and Promotion “Introducing Race, Income, Household Size, and Language Data Collection: A Resource for Case Managers,” Queen’s Printer for Ontario, 2020, https://www.publichealthontario.ca/-/media/Documents/nCoV/main/2020/06/introducing-race-income-household-size-language-data-collection.pdf?sc_lang=en.

101 Immigration Refugees Citizenship Canada, New Pathway to Permanent Residency.

102 Ibid.

103 Ryan Patrick Jones, “Ottawa Opens New Pathway to Permanent Status for Temporary Essential Workers and Graduates,” CBC News, 14 April 2021, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/pathway-permanent-residency-essential-workers-1.5987171 (accessed 28 January 2022).

104 Migrant Rights Network, Exclusion Disappointment Chaos & Exploitation: Canada’s New Short-Term Immigration Pathway. May 2021. https://migrantrights.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/05/Final-Exclusion-Disappointment-Chaos-Exploitation-.pdf.

105 Elke Winter, “Multicultural Citizenship for the Highly Skilled? Naturalization, Human Capital, and the Boundaries of Belonging in Canada’s Middle-Class Nation-Building,” Ethnicities 21no. 2 (2021): 289–310.

106 Robert Benzie, “Doug Ford Doubles down on Comments about ‘Hard Working’ New Canadians,” The Toronto Star, 19 October 2021, Provincial Politics, https://www.thestar.com/politics/provincial/2021/10/19/doug-ford-doubles-down-on-comments-about-hard-working-new-canadians.html (accessed 28 January 2022).

107 Immigration and Social Security Co-ordination (EU Withdrawal) Bill (Sixth sitting) Deb, Tuesday 16 June 2020, cols 190–244. https://hansard.parliament.uk/Commons/2020-06-16/debates/cc80f9f1-8de8-49d6-af2f-e3cbe3bddccc/ImmigrationAndSocialSecurityCo-Ordination(EUWithdrawal)Bill(SixthSitting)?highlight=covid-19%20heroes%20migrants#contribution-7C9C68A5-CFFE-42E4-9005-3B9C745F4D05 (accessed 21 July 2021).

108 Ibid.

109 Department of Health and Social Care, Government Launches Health and Care Visa to Ensure UK Health and Care Services have Access to the Best Global Talent (London: Home Office, 2020). https://www.gov.uk/government/news/government-launches-health-and-care-visa-to-ensure-uk-health-and-care-services-have-access-to-the-best-global-talent.

110 Ibid.

111 Sirin Kale, “Joven Flores Worked Long Hours in a Care Home. Was He Too Rundown to Survive Covid?” The Guardian, 20 April 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/apr/20/joven-flores-worked-long-hours-in-a-care-home-was-he-too-rundown-to-survive-covid.

112 Corinne Redfern, “I Want to Go Home”: Filipina Domestic Workers Face Exploitative Conditions,” The Guardian, 21 January 2021. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/27/domestic-workers-philippines-coronavirus-conditions.

113 Cox, “Healthcare Heroes.”

114 Hayakawa, “Skill Levels and Inequality in Migration.”

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Elke Winter

Elke Winter is a Professor of Sociology and Director of Research at the Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Citizenship and Minorities, University of Ottawa. She recently served as the William Lyon Mackenzie King Chair for Canadian Studies at Harvard University. Her research is concerned with questions of migration, ethnic diversity, integration, and citizenship.

Leah Bassel

Leah Bassel is a Professor of Politics and International Studies at the Center for Trust, Peace and Social Relations, Coventry University, UK. Her research interests include the political sociology of migration, intersectionality and citizenship. [email protected], Coventry University

Marina Gomá

Marina Gomá is a doctoral candidate in Feminist and Gender Studies at the University of Ottawa. She is interested in representations of Iberian-Latin American relations in Spanish national identity discourses, reclamations of a historical colonial memory, and the migrant justice movement in Spain. Marina holds a Master’s degree in Cultural Theory and Critique at the Universidad Carlos III de Madrid. [email protected], University of Ottawa.