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Abstract
This article explores the use of sport in the formation of an Israeli cultural (multi-ethnic) identity and its historical and contemporary place in the Palestinian–Israeli conflict. The power of sporting events lies in the fact that the teams represent for their fans an ideology beyond the game itself. Supporting a sports team is a primary form of identity for many people. Highly salient sporting events, which are supercharged with emotion and garner eager interest, are also a venue for achieving political objectives on the local, national, and international levels.
Notes
1. Price, From Season to Season.
2. Strenk, “Diplomats in Track Suits”; Riordan, “The Impact of Communism”; Krüger and Murray, The Nazi Olympics; Harif, Ziyonut shel sheririm; Tamir et al., “Sports: Faster, Higher, Stronger.”
3. Ben-Porat, “Six Decades of Sport.”
4. Strenk, “The Thrill of Victory.”
5. Orwell, “The Sporting Spirit.”
6. Bairner, Sport, Nationalism, and Globalization.
7. Anderson, Imagined Communities.
8. Althusser, Ideology; Hargreaves, Freedom for Catalonia?
9. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism.
10. Ben-Porat, Kaduregel ve-le’umiyot; Harif, Al migerash ha-gaavah ha-le’umit; Topič and Coakley, “Complicating the Relationship,” 371–89; Poulton, “Mediated Patriot Games,” 437–55; Galily et al., “Socio-cultural Characteristics.”
11. Rein, “‘El Primer Deportista’”; Karush, “National Identity,” 11–32; Martin, Football and Fascism.
12. Holsti, International Politics; Rowe, Popular Cultures.
13. Hobsbawm, Nations and Nationalism.
14. Kuper, Football against the Enemy.
15. Polley, “Sport and National Identity,” 10–20.
16. Harif, Ziyonut shel sheririm.
17. Ben-Porat, Kaduregel ve-le’umiyot, 52.
18. Smooha, Lo shovrim et hakeilim.
19. A historical process of alienation and separation from the state, and therefore the violent conflict will surely come, the question only being when. In addition, this thesis emphasises that Israel is not fulfilling the expected aim of any democratic country – that of subduing disputes between the majority and the minority. Instead of being neutral and helping the minority, the Jewish state takes the side of the Jews, neglects the Arabs and discriminates against them; it also does not educate both sides to adopt values of equality, tolerance, mutual respect, and coexistence.
20. Smooha, Lo shovrim et hakeilim, 20–21; Karsh, “Israel’s Arabs.”
21. Smooha, Lo shovrim et hakeilim, 23.
22. Ibid., 24.
23. Sorek, Zehuyot be-mis’hak.
24. Ben-Porat, Hoy, eizo milhamah ma’aneget.
25. Sorek, Arab Soccer.
26. Harif, “Al migerash ha-gaavah ha-le’umit.”
27. Ben-Porat, “Who Are We?”
28. Ben-Porat, Hoy, eizo milhamah ma’aneget.
29. Spiegel, Embodying Hebrew Culture, 8–9. See also Presner, “Clear Heads, Solid Stomachs.”
30. Kaufman, “Jewish Sports,” 148.
31. Ibid., 148–9.
32. The National Library of Israel, Hasihiyah hasport habari.
33. Kaufman, “Jewish Sports,” 152.
34. Ashkenazi, “German Jewish Athletes,” 152.
35. See Khalidi, “Sports and Aspirations,” 78.
36. See Kaufman, “Jewish Sports,” 153–5.
37. For example, the Amal club of Tel Aviv planned a European exhibition in 1937 but were refused entry into Poland. Because of Maccabi interference, the European Jewish communities would not issue an official invitation to validate Amal’s visa request. See Ashkenazi, “German Jewish Athletes,” 136–7.
38. Ozacky-Lazar and Kabaha, “The Haganah,” 49.
39. Krav panim el panim, or KAPAP, was a rudimentary self-defence system developed in the Zionist youth movement Ha-Mahanot Ha-Olim in the 1930s and taught to all Palmach soldiers as part of their training. It eventually formed the basis of the self-defence system taught to all IDF soldiers (KAPAP UK, “What Is KAPAP?”).
40. Alon, Heye Nakhon!
41. Pentland, Zionist Military Preparations, 146.
42. Morris, 1948, 86; Ozacky-Lazar and Kabaha, “The Haganah,” 49.
43. Harif and Galily, “Sport and Politics in Palestine,” 41–56.
44. Spiegel, Embodying Hebrew Culture, 57.
45. Ashkenazi, “German Jewish Athletes,” 134. They exercised their representation by abstaining from the 1936 Berlin games.
46. Khalidi, “Body and Ideology,” 45.
47. Ozacky-Lazar and Kabaha, “The Haganah,” 49; Khalidi, “The Coverage of Sports,” 45–69. See also Zadka, Blood in Zion, xii.
48. Khalidi, “Body and Ideology,” 45.
49. Khalidi, “Sports and Aspirations,” 81–3. See also Sorek, “Palestinian Nationalism,” 420–23. This sporting body operated until the chaos following the 1936 Arab revolt that precipitated its closure. Palestinian Arabs revived their national association in 1944 as the Palestine Sports Federation.
50. Khalidi, “Sports and Aspirations,” 81.
51. Khalidi, “Body and Ideology,” 48–9. See also Khalidi, “The Coverage of Sports News,” 45–69.
52. Ozacky-Lazar and Kabaha, “The Haganah,” 55.
53. Sayigh, Armed Struggle, 74. This is an area that is under-documented, and the information in this source is based on testimony from members of these groups at that time.
54. Ibid., 81–2.
55. Sorek, “Sport, Palestine, and Israel,” 260.
56. Jamal, Barriers to Democracy, 35, 55–7.
57. Ibid., 53.
58. Sorek, “Sport, Palestine, and Israel,” 260.
59. Sayigh, Armed Struggle, 628.
60. Filiu, “The Origins of Hamas,” 63–4.
61. Jamal, The Palestinian National Movement, 67–83, discusses the origin, structure, and goals of this movement.
62. Ibid., 79.
63. Sayigh, Armed Struggle, 619.
64. Talshir, “Muslim Athletes Pay the Price.”
65. Murray, “FIFA,” 38.
66. Coakley and Dunning, Handbook of Sports Studies, 218.
67. Rudoren, “Palestinians Plan New Tack.”
68. Murray, “FIFA,” 42.
69. Beinart, Twentieth-Century South Africa, 230–31. See also Jarvie and Reid, “Sport in South Africa,” 234–45.
70. “Jibril Rajoub,” Jewish Virtual Library.
71. Pan, “Middle East”; Gellman, “Palestinian Secret Police,” 28; Seliktar, Doomed to Failure, 60. See also Kershner, “The Rise and Rise,” 22.
72. Rudoren, “Palestinians Plan New Tack.”
73. Bob, “Shin Bet”; Cohen, “Palestinian Officer.”
74. Amara, Sport, Politics and Society.
75. “FIFA Prosecutors.”
76. Homewood, “Blatter Fears Israel Vote.”