Ideological discourses in post-Soviet Uzbekistan: internationalization of higher education as a threat

ABSTRACT

Ideological discourses of Central Asia have been subject to much research. However, the use and the role of ideological discourses in framing internationalization of education policy has been largely overlooked. While much has been studied on how and why internationalization of higher education (HE) became indispensable part of tertiary sector, the cases where internationalization of HE is confronted by a government ideology agenda has largely remained outside of scholarly attention. This pioneering research offers analysis on ideology-based resistance to internationalization of education in authoritarian regimes. The paper argues that it is the framing of internationalization as a threat to national ideologies and a national model of education that confronts HE internationalization in some authoritarian political orders. The paper uses the case of post-Soviet Uzbekistan that promoted national ideologies as the basis of its education model. To support its argument, the paper analyses the official discourses of former President Islam Karimov of Uzbekistan (1991–2016) and the statements of government officials on the country’s national education model. It also analyses the interviews held with staff of HE institutions in Tashkent.

Acknowledgments

I am grateful to Dr Kirill Nourzhanov who has provided invaluable comments and suggestions on the earlier versions of the manuscript. I also would like to thank two anonymous reviewers of this journal for their insightful comments.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1. A. Smolentseva, J. Huisman, and I. Froumin, ‘Transformation of higher education institutional landscape in post-Soviet countries: From Soviet model to where?’ in Jeroen Huisman, Anna Smolentseva, and Isak Froumin (Eds) 25 Years of Transformations of Higher Education Systems in post-Soviet Countries (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. 2018), pp. 1–43.

2. I. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House. 1998)

3. World Bank, Group 2020. ‘Tertiary School Enrollment (% gross) – Uzbeksitan.’ Available at: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.TER.ENRR?end=2018&locations=UZ&start=1986.

[6 June 2019]

4. N.H. Naqvi and I. Kheyfets, Uzbekistan-Modernizing Tertiary Education, (The World Bank, 2014)

5. Naqvi, ibid.

6. Data collated by the author from official news websites and UNESCO Institute for Statistics website

7. See D. Lewis, ‘Blogging Zhanaozen: Hegemonic Discourse and Authoritarian Resilience in Kazakhstan.’ Central Asian Survey 35 (3) (2016), pp. 421–438; D. Lewis, J. Heathershaw, and Megoran. ‘Illiberal peace? Authoritarian modes of conflict management.’ Cooperation and conflict 53 (4): (2018), pp. 486–506. Catherine Owen, Shairbek Juraev, David Lewis, Nick Megoran, and John Heathershaw. Interrogating illiberal peace in Eurasia: Critical perspectives on peace and conflict: (Rowman & Littlefield, 2018)

8. D. Lewis, John Heathershaw, and Nick Megoran, ‘Illiberal peace? Authoritarian modes of conflict management’, Cooperation and conflict 53 (4) (2018), pp.486–506.

9. ibid. p.499

10. The books of former President Karimov analysed in the paper are: I. Karimov, Barkamol avlod orzusi, (Tashkent: ‘Sharq’ Publishing House, 1999); I. Karimov, O’zbekiston 21 asr bo’sag’asida: xavfsizlikka tahdid, barqarorlik shartlari va taraqqiyot kafolatlari, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 1997); I. Karimov, Tinchlik va xavfsizligimiz o’z kuch-qudratimizga, hamjihatligmiz va qat’iy irodamizga bog’liq, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 2004); I. Karimov, Tinchlik uchun kurashmoq kerak, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 2001); and I. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 1998).

11. This paper is a part of a larger project on studying the 1991–2016 government resistance to internationalization of HE in Uzbekistan. This paper’s findings are mostly based on the discourse analysis of official writings, statements of government officials and relevant university textbooks. The analysis of interviews is used to show the reception of these ideological narratives by the HE institution staff and do not necessarily constitute the sole source of the research findings.

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exploited by it: Insights from post-Soviet education reforms in Central Asia’, Comparative and International Education 41 (3) (2013).

25. K. L. Gaynor, ‘Transformations in Turkmen higher education: current opportunities and challenges at a new university’, Central Asian Survey 36 (4), (2017), pp. 473–492.

26. T. Majidov, Dipak Ghosh, and Kobil Ruziev. ‘Keeping up with revolutions: evolution of higher education in Uzbekistan’, Economic Change and Restructuring 43 (1), (2010), pp 45–63; K. Ruziev, and Burkhanov, Umar. ‘Uzbekistan: Higher education reforms and the changing landscape since independence’, in Jeroen Huisman, Anna Smolentseva, and Isak Froumin (Eds) 25 years of transformations of higher education systems in post-soviet countries, (Palgrave Macmillan, Cham.; 2018),pp.435–459.; J. C. Weidman and Yoder, Brian, ‘Policy and Practice in Education Reform in Mongolia and Uzbekistan during the First Two Decades of the Post-Soviet Era’, Excellence in Higher Education 1, (2010).; D. Ubaydullaeva, ‘“Franchise” Branch Campuses in Uzbekistan: The Internationalisation of Higher Education as a Solution?’, Central Asian Affairs 7 (2), (2020), pp 152–174.; D. Ubaydullaeva, ‘Student online protests in Uzbekistan: democratization of higher education as concomitant to the COVID-19 crisis?’, Central Asian Survey 40 (3), (2021), pp. 382–399.

27. D. Ubaydullaeva, ‘Securitization of Higher Education Expansion in Authoritarian

States: Uzbekistan’s Seemingly ‘Elite’ Tertiary System’, Problems of Post-Communism (2021), DOI: 10.1080/10758216.2021.1974886

28. D. Ubaydullaeva, ‘Student online protests in Uzbekistan: democratization of higher

education as concomitant to the COVID-19 crisis?’ Central Asian Survey 40 (3), (2021), pp.382–399.

29. S. Amsler, The politics of knowledge in Central Asia: science between Marx and the Market (Routledge, 2007)

30. Amsler, ibid., p 2.

31. S. F. Maerz, ‘Ma’naviyat in Uzbekistan: an ideological extrication from its Soviet

past?’ Journal of Political Ideologies 23 (2), (2018), pp. 205–222.

32. Maerz, ibid.

33. S. Kendzior, ‘Reclaiming Ma’naviyat: Morality, Criminality, and Dissident Politics in

Uzbekistan’, in Ethnographies of the State in Central Asia: Performing Politics, in Reeves, Madeleine, Rasanayagam, Johan and Beyer, Judith (Eds), (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2014) pp.223–42.

34. N. Megoran, ‘Framing Andijon, narrating the nation: Islam Karimov’s account of the events of 13 May 2005’, Central Asian Survey 27 (1), (2008) pp.15–31.

35. Megoran, ibid., p 15.

36. A. F. March, ‘The use and abuse of history:“ national ideology” as transcendental object in Islam Karimov’s “ideology of national independence”’, Central Asian Survey 21 (4): (2002) pp. 371–384; A.F. March, ‘From Leninism to Karimovism: hegemony, ideology, and authoritarian legitimation’, Post-Soviet Affairs 19 (4), (2003), pp. 307–336.

37. March, ‘The use and abuse of history: ‘national ideology’ as transcendental object

in Islam Karimov’s ‘ideology of national independence’’, op. cit., Ref. 36, p371.

38. S. Horsman, ‘Themes in official discourses on terrorism in Central Asia’, Third World

Quarterly 26 (1), (2005) pp.199–213.

39. I. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin,

(Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 1998) p 6.

40. Karimov, ibid.

41. I. Karimov, O’zbekiston: milliy istiqlol, iqtisod, siyosat mafkura, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 1996); B. Turayev, ‘Islam Karimov is the Founder of the Concept of National Ideology’, The Islam Karimov Scientific and Enlightenment Memorial Complex, (2018), Available at http://islomkarimov.uz/uz/article/islom-karimov-millij-goya-va-mafkura-kontseptsiyasi-asoschisi. [1 December 2020]

42. Karimov, O’zbekiston: milliy istiqlol, iqtisod, siyosat mafkura, op. cit. Ref. 41, p.119.

43. For example, in his early book of 1996 O’zbekiston: milliy istiqlol, iqtisod, siyosat mafkura, Karimov used the term ‘milliy mafkura’ and, sometimes its shortened version ‘mafkura’, to explain Uzbekistan’s national ideology. In his other publications, such as his books of 1998 Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin, and 2000 Milliy istiqlol mafkurasi – xalq e’tiqodi va buyuk kelajakka ishonchdir (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 2000) devoted to defining the national ideology of Uzbekistan, Karimov used the terms milliy istiqlol g’oyasi and milliy mafkura interchangeably. In some cases, the shortened version of milliy istiqlol g’oyasi – milliy g’oya (national ideology) was used in his discourses. The same practice of using the terms interchangeably is observed in university and school textbooks on the topic of national ideology of Uzbekistan. Some university and school textbooks employed the term milliy g’oya and others milliy mafkura but all referred to Karimov’s books where he used both terms to define the Uzbek national ideology. See Sh. Mamadaliev, M. Tojiboev, and A. Kholyigitov, Milliy Istiqlol Goyasi va Milliy Xavfszilik (Tashkent: Akademiya Noshirlik Markazi, 2008); A. Erkaev, Milliy G’oya va Ma’naviyat, (Tashkent: Ma’naviyat, 2002); Q.Nazarov et al, Milliy Istiqlol G’oyasi – O’rta maxsus, kasb-hunar ta’limi muassasalari uchun o’quv qo’llanma, (Tashkent, O’zbekiston Faylasuflar Milliy Jamiyati, 2010).

44. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin, op. cit., Ref. 39, p 4.

45. Karimov, ibid., p 15.

46. Karimov, ibid., p 14.

47. Karimov, ibid., p 14.

48. E. Umarov, and Mahmud Abdullaev, Ma’naviyat Asoslari, (Tashkent: «Sharq» Nashriyot-matbaa aksiyadorlik kompaniyasi bosh tahririyati, 2005)

49. I. Saifnazarov, Ma’naviy Barkamollik va Siyosiy Madaniyat. (Tashkent Sharq Publishing House, 2001); Erkaev, Milliy G’oya va Ma’naviyat, op. cit., Ref. 43.; Mamadaliev, Tojiboev, and Kholyigitov, Milliy Istiqlol Goyasi va Milliy Xavfszilik, op. cit., Ref. 43; Sh. Mamadaliev, Natsionalnaya ideya, (Tashkent: Academy of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Uzbekistan, 2015).

50. Umarov and Abdullaev, Ma’naviyat Asoslari, op. cit., Ref 48, p. 17

51. I. Karimov, Yuksak ma’naviyat yengilmas kuch, (Tashkent: Ma’naviyat, 2008)

52. I.Karimov, Istiqlol va ma’naviyat, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 1994), page 9.

53. Umarov and Abdullaev, Ma’naviyat Asoslari, op. cit., Ref. 48, p. 7

54. Karimov, Istiqlol va ma’naviyat, op. cit., Ref. 52, p20.

55. Umarov and Abdullaev, Ma’naviyat Asoslari,op. cit., Ref. 48.

56. Maerz, ‘Ma’naviyat in Uzbekistan: an ideological extrication from its Soviet past?’ op. cit. Ref. 31; March, ‘State ideology and the legitimation of authoritarianism: The case of post-Soviet Uzbekistan’ Journal of Political Ideologies 8 (2), (2003), pp.209–232.

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63. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin, op. cit., Ref. 39, p 5.

64. Karimov, Barkamol avlod orzusi, op. cit., Ref. 10, p. 283.

65. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin, op. cit., Ref. 39, p.6.

66. Karimov, ibid, p.10

67. It is worth noting that the constructed threats also covered the threats of terrorism and religious ideologies of the time. However, this paper focuses particularly on the framing of internationalization in tertiary education in the official discourse, and how this narration affected the restriction of international activities in the HE sector.

68. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin, op. cit., Ref. 39, p.5.

69. LEX.UZ. 2006. “O’zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidentining Qarori: Milliy G’oya Targ’Iboti va Ma’naviy-

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70. Author’s interviews with HE institution lecturers, Tashkent 2020. Interviews with former and current HE staff who worked in the sector some time between 1991–2016 were conducted in Tashkent, 2020. The interviewees were selected on the basis of snowball sampling. This paper is a part of a larger project on the subject where interview data is main the focus. However, this paper’s findings are largely based on discourse analysis of official writings, statements of government officials and relevant university textbooks.

71. I. Karimov, Biz kelajagimizni o’z qo’limiz bilan quramiz, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 1999), p. 88.

72. Karimov, ibid.,p.88.

73. Karimov, Jamiyatimiz mafkurasi xalqni – xalq, millatni-millat qilishga xizmat etsin, op. cit., Ref. 39.

74. Republican Centre for Spirituality and Enlightenment, Manaviyat – qudratli kuch, (Republican Centre

for Spirituality and Enlightenment 2019), Available at http://manaviyat.uz/news/view/876. [February 2021]

75. E. Asanov, ‘Ostorozhno, «ma’naviyat»!” (Gazeta.uz. 2018), Available at https://www.gazeta.uz/ru/2018/08/26/manaviyat/. [18 February 2021]

76. F. Azimova, Uzluksiz ma’naviy tarbiya”ning mustahkam poydevori, (Republican Centre for Sprituality and Enlightenment, 2019), Available at http://manaviyat.uz/post/view/395. [30 January 2021].

77. Karimov, Barkamol avlod orzusi, op. cit., Ref. 10.

78. Karimov, ibid., p.144.

79. Karimov, ibid., p.146.

80. The five pillars of the Uzbek model of development were: a priority of economy over politics, the state as the only reformer, the supremacy of law, gradualism of reforms (rather than shock-therapy), and strong social policy.

81. Karimov, Barkamol avlod orzusi, op. cit., Ref. 10, p. 84.

82. Karimov, ibid., p 23.

83. Adilkhodjaeva, Konsolidiruyushchaya rol’ nattsional’noy ideologii v usloviyakh liberalizatsii Obshchestva, op. cit., Ref. 62.

84. Mamadaliev, Natsionalnaya ideya, op. cit., Ref. 49, p.87.

85. According to Karimov, most ‘dreams’ of people in the world were about having a ‘musaffo osmon’ (a clear sky) meaning the country is in peace and there is no war, internal conflicts, or disasters. The generation of students who graduated from HE institutions throughout 1991–2016 faced several instances where their acquired education was no longer modern and needed in the job market. In most cases, they sarcastically stated, ‘but we have a musaffo osmon’ (author’s interview data, Tashkent, 2020).

86. J. Nichol, ‘Uzbekistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests’, Congressional Research Service (2013) p. 1. Available at: https://sgp.fas.org/crs/row/RS21238.pdf

87. Nichol, ibid., p.18.

88. M. Fumagalli, ‘Alignments and realignments in Central Asia: the rationale and implications of Uzbekistan’s rapprochement with Russia’, International Political Science Review 28 (3): (2007), pp.253–271.

89. J. Mamatov, ‘Oqsaroy sirlari (Savol-Javob).’ (2007), Available at: https://jahonnoma.com/2007/11/26/jahongir-mamatov-oqsaroy-sirlari-savol-javob/. [20 November 2020]

90. H. Jumaeva, ‘Some Shapes of Spiritual Attack, Its Influences and Outcomes for Educating the Youth’, European Journal of Research and Reflection in Educational Sciences 8 (2): 2020. p. 20.

91. I. Karimov, O’zbek xalqi hech qachon hech kimga qaram bo’lmaydi, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 2005), p.384.

92. Karimov, ibid., p.379

93. Mamadaliev, Natsionalnaya ideya, op. cit., Ref. 49, p.89.

94. Author’s interviews with HE institution lecturers, Tashkent 2020.

95. N. Megoran, ‘Problems and possibilities for higher education in Uzbekistan: The English department of Ferghana State University’, Central Asian Survey 16 (3): (1997), pp. 353–362.

96. Author’s interviews with HE institution lecturers, Tashkent 2020.

97. Author’s interviews with HE institution lecturers, Tashkent 2020.

98. See for example: TGPU. ‘Polozheniya Tashkentskogo Gosudarstvennogo Pedagogicheskogo Universiteta imeni Nizami “Ob Eticheskikh Pravilakh’, O Poryadke Ispol’zovaniya Mobil’nykh Telefonov” i “O Kul’ture Odezhdy, Tashkent State Pedagogical University named after Nizami, (2014) Available at: http://new.tdpu.uz/news/440/ru; and State Academy of Choreography of Uzbekistan, “Eticheskiye Pravila”, Tashkent State Higher School of National Dance and Choreography,Avaialble at https://mrxom.uz/language/ru/%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8-%D1%81%D1%82%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B0. [November 2020].

99. YaObozrevatel’, ‘“Vyssheye” obrazovaniye v Uzbekistane. Mysli vslukh’, Offiical YouTube Channel ‘я Обозреватель’, (2019), Available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=F68xUOH9DmI&t=351s&ab_channel=%D1%8F%D0%9E%D0%B1%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C. [January 10, 2021]

100. Student also spoke about the compulsory attendance of universities various events that are organized for ‘ticking the box’ purposes of implementing ma’naviyat ideology. See: YaObozrevatel’, ‘“Vyssheye” obrazovaniye v Uzbekistane. Mysli vslukh’, op. cit., Ref. 99.

101. M. C. Spechler, ‘Uzbekistan: the silk road to nowhere?’, Contemporary Economic Policy 18 (3)

(2000) p. 299 and p.295.

102. Spechler, ibid., p. 302

103. Nichol, ‘Uzbekistan: Recent Developments and U.S. Interests’, op. cit., Ref. 86.

104. Kurbanov, Sh, and E Seytkhalilov, ‘Natsional’naya programma po podgotovke kadrov i yee vliyaniye na razvitiye obshestva’, O’zbekistonda ijtimoiy fanlar 7 (8): (1999), p.52.

105. A, Ortiqov, M Muhammadjonov and S Yoqubova. ‘O’zbekistonda fan-texnika taraqqiyoti va ilmiy, amaliy tadqiqotlarning rivojlanishi.’ O’zbekistonda ijtimoiy fanlar 3 (4), (1999), pp 3–8.

106. Also known as the Andijan massacre. There are many theories as to how the unrest evolved. However, what tends to be similar in all these accounts is that in May of 2005 a group of unarmed protesters in the public square of Andijan were shot by government officials as per the instruction of the then government of Uzbekistan. The event drew a sharp change in the foreign policy of Uzbekistan

107. Peace Corps and IREX were suspended in 2005 while ACCELS was closed in 2006. See: PeaceCorpsOnline, ‘Peace Corps Suspends Program in Uzbekistan.’ Peace Corps Online (2005), Available at: http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/messages/467/2032279.html. [2 November 2020]; Eurasianet, ‘Uzbekistan registers US NGO in new breakthrough. American Councils was stripped of accreditation in 2006 amid a widespread NGO crackdown’, (2018), Available at: eurasianet.org; The New Humanitarian, ‘Another US-funded NGO under pressure’, The New Humanitarian, (2005). Available at: https://www.thenewhumanitarian.org/fr/node/197956 [6 October 2020].

108. See (PeaceCorpsOnline, ‘64 new Peace Corps volunteers were sworn in at the Uzbek National Academic Drama Theatre on 5 April’, (2005), Available at: http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/messages/467/2030810.html [29 November 2020); PeaceCorpsOnline. ‘Shannon Larson heading to Uzbekistan in Peace Corps.’ The Peace Corps, (2003), Available at: http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/messages/467/2015415.html [29 November 2020) and PeaceCorpsOnline. ‘Nathan Hamm served in Uzbekistan in Navoi beginning in 2000.’ Peace Corps Online (2000), Available at: http://peacecorpsonline.org/messages/messages/467/2025963.html [November 18, 2020].

109. FundsforNGOs, ‘Uzbekistan accredits U.S. Education-Focused NGO.’ fundsforngos.org, (2018), Available at https://news.fundsforngos.org/education/uzbekistan-accredits-u-s-education-focused-ngo/. [2 December 2020].

110. IREX, ‘IREX Uzbekistan Representative Consultant.’ IREX Careers (2020), Available at: https://jobs.jobvite.com/irex/job/oGTncfwS. [17 September 2020].

111. Karimov, O’zbekiston 21 asr bo’sag’asida: xavfsizlikka tahdid, barqarorlik shartlari va taraqqiyot kafolatlari, op. cit., Ref. 10, p. 260.

112. Karimov, ibid., p. 257.

113. Interview with the senior representative of Webster University in the US, April, 2019, Washington DC.

114. Author’s interviews with HE institution lecturers, Tashkent 2020.

115. IUT, ‘Inha University in Tashkent.’ IUT, (2014), Available at: https://inha.uz/pages/6. [20 December 2020].

116. According to Ubaydullaeva (2020), the seven branch campuses that were established during Karimov’s rule were: the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics since 1995, Westminster University (UK) since 2002, Lomonosov Moscow State University (Russia) since 2006, Gubkin Russian State University of Oil and Gas since 2007, Management Development Institute of Singapore since 2007, Turin Polytechnic University (Italy) since 2009, Inha University (South Korea) since 2014.

117. There was a fully state-funded and controlled student mobility program that operated in Uzbekistan for a short span of time: The ‘Umid’ foundation that was set up by Karimov’s decree on January 7 of 1997. The core function of the foundation was to send students selected under competitive selection criteria to study abroad at undergraduate, graduate and professional training (up to one year duration) levels. However, as years moved on, media reports stated the disappointment of the Uzbek government over the lack of dedication of these youth to support Karimov’s administration and over their westernized personality and attitude (Amerika Ovozi, ‘Vashington choyxonasi: “Umid” jamg’armasining yangi umidlari.’ Amerika Ovozi, 2020., accessed December 6. https://www.amerikaovozi.com/a/5250829.html). More than half of total number of 828 Umid grant recipients did not return to Uzbekistan (Amerika Ovozi 2020), those who returned were reported to be labelled as ‘westernized’ as they questioned the country’s governance and authoritarian subordination system in the workplace. This was a result that the then Uzbek government did not expect to see. Later official discourse stated that after seeing the failed results of its efforts, the authorities did not consider it worth sending students to Western states to obtain university degrees and such early experience also led to an understanding of threats of Western education to youth. This subsequently led to the closure of the foundation in 2003 See: I. Karimov, Decree of the President of the Republic of Uzbeksitan: “O’zbekiston Respublikasi Prezidentining Iqtidorli Yoshlarning Chet Elda Ta’lim Olishlarini Qo’Llab-Quvvatlash ‘Umid’ Jamg’Armasini Tuzish To’g’risida, in PF-1694-son, LEX.UZ. (Tashkent, 1997). There were other state-funded agencies but they focused on sending the teachers, not the students, for short training opportunities abroad.

118. Karimov, Barkamol avlod orzusi, op. cit., Ref. 10, p.19.

119. Megoran, ‘Problems and possibilities for higher education in Uzbekistan: The English department of Ferghana State University’, op. cit., Ref. 95, p. 357.

120. Megoran, ibid.

121. US State Department, ‘Peace Corps suspends program in Uzbekistan’, United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (2005), Available at: https://reliefweb.int/terms-conditions [5 November 2020]

122. N. Megoran, ‘The Bell Tolls for Another US-Based NGO in Uzbekistan’, Eurasianet, (11 July 2006), Available at: https://eurasianet.org/the-bell-tolls-for-another-us-based-ngo-in-uzbekistan

123. For further details of these terrorist attacks see M.Y. Omelicheva.’The ethnic dimension of religious extremism and terrorism in Central Asia’, International Political Science Review 31 (2): (2010), pp.167–186; Horsman, ‘Themes in official discourses on terrorism in Central Asia’, op. cit., Ref. 38.

124. Karimov, Tinchlik va xavfsizligimiz o’z kuch-qudratimizga, hamjihatligmiz va qat’iy irodamizga bog’liq, op.cit., Ref. 10.

125. Karimov, ibid.

126. Karimov, ibid., p.156.

127. Karimov ibid., p.160.

128. Karimov, Biz kelajagimizni o’z qo’limiz bilan quramiz, op. cit., Ref. 71, p.320.

129. Author’s interview with HE institution staff, Tashkent, 2020

130. Karimov, Tinchlik va xavfsizligimiz o’z kuch-qudratimizga, hamjihatligmiz va qat’iy irodamizga bog’liq, op. cit., Ref. 10, p.161.

131. Karimov, ibid., p.164.

132. Karimov’s stated that “ … we, like the rest of the world, are working tirelessly to build a system of democratic states in our country, to introduce democratic values into our lives, to transition to a market economy and thus to see our future through these. However, if it took hundreds of years for you to set up democracy, it makes sense to ask why you would require us to achieve that goal in just ten years (Karimov, ibid, p. 164).

133. In a meeting on Uzbekistan’s pre-2016 HE policy, the rector of Samarkand State University stated that during the past two decades any HE institution rector and staff who provided initiatives were punished and politically assessed, which resulted in a generation of HE staff and leadership with no initiatives and those who simply followed directions from the Ministry. See International Press-Club, ‘O’zbekistonda Oliy Ta’lim Tizimi Toshkent’, International Press-Club of Uzbekistan (2019),”Press Klub 26.06.2019, Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_dpdsbw4A0&t=1263s&ab_channel=InternationalPress-Club.

[24 November 2020].

134. Karimov, Tinchlik va xavfsizligimiz o’z kuch-qudratimizga, hamjihatligmiz va qat’iy irodamizga bog’liq, op. cit., Ref. 10. p. 171)

135. Karimov, ibid., p.171.

136. International Press-Club, ‘O’zbekistonda Oliy Ta’lim Tizimi Toshkent’, op. cit., Ref.133.

137. Ko’zgu. ‘O’zbekiston yoshlari “MANQURT” qilib tarbiyalanyaptimi? Bu kimlar uchun KERAK (bo’ldi)???’. an independent journalist, blogger Ko’zgu (202). Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ahpnkqh2jUo&ab_channel=Ko%27zgu. [2 December 2000].

138. Ko’zgu, ibid. For further analysis of democratization in the Uzbek higher education see D. Ubaydullaeva, ‘Student online protests in Uzbekistan: democratization of higher education as concomitant to the COVID-19 crisis?’, op. cit., Ref. 26.

139. Karimov, O’zbekiston 21 asr bo’sag’asida: xavfsizlikka tahdid, barqarorlik shartlari va taraqqiyot kafolatlari, op. cit., Ref. 10, p,297.

140. B. Wtzel, ‘Interview: Education in Uzbekistan.’ Dr Birgit Wtzel, (2019) Available at:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uWxmTnNE5sg&ab_channel=birgitwetzel. [November 10, 2020].

141. See, for example, works of Megoran, ‘Problems and possibilities for higher education in Uzbekistan: The English department of Ferghana State University’, op. cit., Ref 95. and J. Rasanayagam, Islam in post-soviet Uzbekistan: The morality of experience, (Cambridge university press, 2010).

142. Karimov, O’zbekiston 21 asr bo’sag’asida: xavfsizlikka tahdid, barqarorlik shartlari va taraqqiyot kafolatlari, op. cit., Ref. 10, p 310.

143. Interview with the representative of Executive of Webster University in the US, April, 2019, Washington DC.

144. Interview data with HE staff in Tashkent, January 2020.

145. Karimov, O’zbekiston 21 asr bo’sag’asida: xavfsizlikka tahdid, barqarorlik shartlari va taraqqiyot kafolatlari, op. cit., Ref. 10, p 310.

146. Westminster International University in Tashkent, ‘Our University.’ WIUT (2002), Available at: https://www.westminster.ac.uk/about-us/our-university/global-westminster/global-partner-network/westminster-international-university-in-tashkent. [November 8, 2020].

147. Interview with Farmonov (name changed for privacy and security purposes) was conducted in Tashkent, 2020.

148. National Tempus Office in Uzbekistan, NTO. 2013. Tempus IV in Uzbekistan. Tashkent: National Tempus Office in Uzbekistan.

149. National Tempus Office in Uzbekistan, ibid.

150. Author’s interview with former HE institution staff, Tashkent, 2020

151. Karimov, O’zbekiston 21 asr bo’sag’asida: xavfsizlikka tahdid, barqarorlik shartlari va taraqqiyot kafolatlari, op. cit., Ref. 10, p.311.

152. See Karimov, Biz kelajagimizni o’z qo’limiz bilan quramiz, op. cit., Ref. 71; I. Karimov, Inson, uning huquq va erkinliklari – oliy qadriyat, (Tashkent: ‘Uzbekistan’ Publishing House, 2006).

153. Author’s interview with former HE institution staff, Tashkent, 2020.

154. Author’s interview with former HE institution staff, Tashkent, 2020.

155. Author’s interview with HE institution staff, Tashkent, 2020.