![Sample our Politics & International Relations journals, sign in here to start your FREE access for 14 days]({"type":"image" , "src" : "/sda/5947/TOC-Subject-Sample-2021-Politics-International-Relations.jpg"})
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful to Professors Stephen White, Margot Light and Roy Allison for permission to use the 2004 and 2005 ‘Inclusion without Membership’ survey data and to the former for the transcripts of the focus groups cited. He also acknowledges financial assistance for the present research from UACES (Study Group S-013) and the British Academy (SG-40918).
Notes
1. Dirk Berg-Schlosser, ‘The Quality of Democracies in Europe as Measured by Current Indicators of Democratization and Good Governance’, in D. Hutcheson and E. Korosteleva (eds), The Quality of Democracy in Post-Communist Europe, London/New York, 2006, pp. 28–55.
2. For example, G. Pridham and T. Vanhanen (eds), Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives, London, 1994; C. Offe, Designing Institutions for East European Transitions, Vienna, 1994; J. Linz and A. Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe, London/Baltimore, 1996; K. Dawisha and B. Parrott (eds), The Consolidation of Democracy in East-Central Europe, Cambridge, 1997; M. Kaldor and I. Vejvoda, ‘Democratization in Central and East European Countries’, International Affairs, Vol. 73, No. 1, 1997, pp. 59–82; J. Elster et al., Institutional Design in Post-Communist Societies: Rebuilding the Ship at Sea, Cambridge, 1998; G. Pridham and A. Agh, Prospects for Democratic Consolidation in East-Central Europe, Manchester, 2001; J. Zielonka (ed.), Democratic Consolidation in Eastern Europe, Oxford, 2001; T. Frye, ‘Presidents, Parliaments, and Democracy: Insights from the Post-Communist World’, in A. Reynolds, The Architecture of Democracy, Oxford, 2002, pp. 81–103; P. Schmitter, ‘The Quality of Neo-Democracy in Central Europe’, Central European Political Science Review, Vol. 3, No. 9, 2002, pp. 12–20; J. Grugel, ‘Democratization Studies’, Government and Opposition, Vol. 38, No. 2, 2003, pp. 238–64.
3. G. Sartori, The Theory of Democracy Revisited, Chatham NJ, 1987, pp. 3–20.
4. See, for example, the publications of Freedom House in the USA.
5. For a discussion about the relevance of social constructivism to this debate, see T. Theiler, Political Symbolism and European Integration, Manchester, 2005, pp. 8–27.
6. J. Schumpeter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, London, 1943, p. 269.
7. L. Diamond, Developing Democracy: Toward Consolidation, Baltimore/London, 1999, pp. 8–15.
8. L. Diamond and L. Morlino, ‘The Quality of Democracy: An Overview’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 15, No. 4, 2004, pp. 20–31.
9. R. Dahl, Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition, New Haven/London, 1971.
10. P. Schmitter and T. Karl, ‘What Democracy is … and is not’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1991, pp. 75–88.
11. Document of the Copenhagen Meeting of the Conference on the Human Dimensions of the CSCE, 29 June 1990. Available online at:<http://www.osce.org/documents/odihr/1990/06/13992_en.pdf>, accessed 20 March 2006.
12. Most of this increase came from multiple successor states to original signatories that subsequently dissolved, including the USSR, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia, in addition to the incorporation of new members such as Albania. The Conference was renamed ‘Organization’ in 1994, and is hereafter referred to by its new initials, OSCE.
13. CSCE Heads of Government, ‘Charter of Paris for a New Europe’, 19–21 November 1990, pp. 3–4. Available online at:<http://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/1990/11/4045_en.pdf>, accessed 25 March 2006.
14. OSCE/ODIHR, OSCE Election Observation Handbook, 5th edn, Warsaw, 2005, p. 17.
15. Ninth Meeting of the Ministerial Council, Bucharest Plan of Action for Combating Terrorism, Decision No. 1 (MC(9), DEC/1), Bucharest, 3–4 December 2001, §10. Available online at:<http://www.osce.org/documents/mcs/2001/12/4173_en.pdf>, accessed 25 March 2006.
16. Statute on the Council of Europe, preamble. Available online at:<http://conventions.coe.int/Treaty/en/Treaties/Word/001.doc>, accessed 24 March 2006.
17. L. Pratchett, ‘The Core Principles of European Democracy’, in Directorate General of Political Affairs, Council of Europe, Reflections on the Future of Democracy in Europe, Strasbourg, 2005, pp. 31–5.
18. European Union, European Council in Copenhagen, 21–22 June 1993—Conclusions of the Presidency, Doc. SN 180/1/93 REV1, p. 13.
19. Commission of the European Communities, Towards the Enlarged European Union: Strategy Paper and Report of the European Commission on the Progress Towards Accession by Each of the Candidate Countries, Doc. SEC (2002) 1400–1412, 9 October 2002, pp. 8 and 13. The political criteria set out in Copenhagen were later enshrined, through the Treaty of Amsterdam, in the Treaty on European Union.
20. European Commission, Bulgaria & Romania: 2005 Comprehensive Monitoring Report on the State of Preparedness for EU Membership, Luxembourg, 2005, p. 4. Commission of the European Communities, Communication from the Commission: Monitoring Report on the State of Prepardness for EU membership of Bulgaria and Romania, Brussels, 16 May 2006, Com (2006) 214 final.
21. Bulletin EU 3-2004, 17 March 2004, §1.6.11.
22. Bulletin EU 5-2005, 12 May 2005, §1.2.5.
23. C. Malmström, ‘EU–Russia Relations: European Parliament Resolution on EU–Russia Relations’, 26 May 2005, Session Document P6_TA(2005)0207 (2004/2170(INI)), §17.
24. Bulletin EU 12-2005, 15 December 2005, §1.2.9.
25. European Commission, Country Strategy Paper—National Indicative Programme: Belarus 2005–2006, 28 May 2004, §§10 and 15. Available online at:<http://europa.eu.int/comm/external_relations/belarus/csp/csp05_06.pdf>, accessed 27 March 2006.
26. EU Press release, ‘EU–Ukraine Summit, Kiev, 1 December 2005’, Release PRES/05/337, 2005. Available online at:<http://europa.eu.int/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=PRES/05/337&format=HTML&aged=0&language=EN&guiLanguage=en>, accessed 26 March 2006.
27. OSCE/ODIHR, Republic of Belarus: Parliamentary Elections—18 October 2004. Final Report, Warsaw, 2004; ibid., Republic of Belarus. Presidential Election, 19 March 2006. OSCE Election Observation Mission Report, Warsaw 2006a; ibid., Russian Federation: Elections to the State Duma—7 December 2003. OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Report, Warsaw, 2004; ibid., Russian Federation: Presidential Election—14 March 2004. OSCE/ODIHR Election Observation Mission Report, Warsaw, 2004; ibid., Ukraine: Presidential Election—31 October, 21 November and 26 December 2004. Final Report, Warsaw, 2005; ibid., International Election Observation Mission: Parliamentary Elections, Ukraine—26 March 2006. Preliminary Statement, Warsaw, 2006b. These statements are available online from the OSCE/ODIHR website: http://www.osce.org/odihr-elections/14207.html, accessed 27 March 2006.
28. V. Putin, ‘Final words at the Congress of News Agencies’, 24 September 2004, Moscow. Transcript available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2004/09/24/1809_type82913_77200.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006. These comments were made in the context of a discussion of democracy and the definition of ‘terrorism’.
29. V. Putin, ‘Interview for the New York Times’, 4 October 2003, Novo-Ogarevo. Transcript available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/text/speeches/2003/10/04/1345_53478.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006. Article published in New York Times, 6 October 2003, p. 8.
30. V. Putin, ‘Interview with Fox News Channel’, 17 September 2005, Washington. Transcript available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/text/speeches/2005/09/17/2348_type82914type82916_93997.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006.
31. V. Putin, ‘Interview with Brazilian newspapers Folha de Sao Paulo and O Globo’, 21 November 2004. Transcript available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2004/11/21/0000_type82916_79898.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006.
32. See, for example, V. Putin, ‘Poslanie Federal'nomu Sobraniyu Rossiiskoi Federatsii’, 3 April 2001. Transcript available online at:<www.kremlin.ru/text/appears/2001/04/28514.htm>; V. Putin, ‘Interview with the Chilean Television Channel 13 and the newspaper El Mercurio’, 18 November 2004, Moscow. Transcript available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2004/11/18/2309_type82916_79637.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006.
33. V. Putin, ‘Poslanie Federal'nomu Sobraniyu Rossiiskoi Federatsii’, 25 April 2005, Moscow. Transcript available online: http://www.kremlin.ru/appears/2005/04/25/1223_type63372type82634_87049.shtml, accessed 18 March 2006.
34. Idem.
35. V. Putin, ‘Press Conference [with President Bush] on the Results of Russian-American Talks’, 24 February 2005, Bratislava. Available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/text/speeches/2005/02/24/2307_type82914type82915_84525.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006.
36. For a theoretical perspective on this phenomenon, see Sartori, 1987, op. cit., pp. 257–77.
37. A. Kornya and S. Varshavchik, ‘Pryamoi efir bez pryamogo umysla’, Nezavisimaya Gazeta, 16 February 2004, p. 2.
38. Putin, ‘Poslanie’, 25 April 2005, op.cit.
39. Putin, ‘Interview for the New York Times’, 4 October 2003, op. cit. See also Andrew Jack, Inside Putin's Russia, 2nd edn, London, 2005, pp. 131–73.
40. V. Putin, ‘Press Conference’, 24 February 2005, op.cit.
41. V. Putin, ‘Vystuplenie na rasshirennom zasedanii Pravitel'stva s uchastiem glav sub''ektov Rossiiskoi Federsatsii’, 13 September 2004, Moscow. Available online at:<http://www.president.kremlin.ru/text/appears/2004/09/76651.shtml>, accessed 19 October 2004.
42. V. Fronin, ‘Aleksandr Lukashenko: Rossiyane dlya nas—lyudi rodnye’, Rossiiskaya Gazeta, 29 December 2005, p. 1.
43. A. Lukashenko, ‘Doklad Prezidenta Respubliki Belarus′ A.G. Lukashenko na vtorom Vsebelorusskom narodnom sobranii’, 18 May 2001. Transcript available online at:<http://president.gov.by/rus/president/speech/2001/vsebel_sobr.html>, accessed 30 March 2006.
44. V. Yushchenko, ‘Vystuplenie Glavy gosudarstva na otkrytii pervykh Prezidentskyh slushanii’, 28 November 2005. Transcript available online at:<http://ww8.president.gov.ua/ru/news/data/print/4511.html>, accessed 30 March 2006.
45. V. Yushchenko, ‘Vystuplenie Prezidenta Ukrainy Viktora Yushchenko na Maidane Nezalezhnosti’, 24 August 2005. Transcript available online at:<http://ww7.president.gov.ua/ru/news/data/print/2406.html>, accessed 30 March 2006.
46. V. Putin, ‘Speech at the World Congress of News Agencies’, 24 September 2004, Moscow. Transcript available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/speeches/2004/09/24/1700_type82913_77199.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006.
47. OSCE/ODIHR, 2006b, op. cit., pp. 9–10.
48. See also D. Hutcheson and E. Korosteleva, ‘Patterns of Participation in Post-Soviet Politics’, Comparative European Politics, Vol. 4, No. 1, 2006, pp. 23–46.
49. cf. W. Belson, Validity in Survey Research, Aldershot, 1986, pp. 13–16.
50. J. Dryzek and L. Holmes (eds), Post-Communist Democratization: Political Discourses Across Thirteen Countries, Cambridge, 2002, esp. pp. 255–73.
51. J. Ekman and J. Linde, ‘Communist Nostalgia and the Consolidation of Democracy in Central and Eastern Europe’, The Journal of Communist Studies and Transition Politics, Vol. 21, No. 3, 2005, pp. 354–74.
52. The communist states which have joined the EU or are under consideration for membership that do not have a communist legacy—i.e. Malta, Cyprus, and Turkey—are excluded from the analysis, as we are primarily interested in the differences between long-standing ‘West European’ states and those previously in the Eastern Bloc.
53. World Bank, Transition—The First Ten Years: Analysis and Lessons for Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, Washington DC, 2002, p. 4.
54. Schmitter and Karl, 1991, op.cit.
55. World Values Surveys 1999–2002, variable e.119.
56. J. Rupnik, ‘The Postcommunist Divide’, Journal of Democracy, Vol. 10, No. 1, 1999, pp. 57–62 (p. 57).
57. R. Inglehart, ‘How Solid is Mass Support for Democracy—And How Can We Measure It?’, PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 36, No. 1, 2003, pp. 51–7.
58. World Values Surveys 1999–2002, variable e.032.
59. V. Putin, ‘Interview to CBS Anchor Mike Wallace’, 9 May 2005. Available online at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/eng/text/speeches/2005/05/09/0842_type82916_87807.shtml>, accessed 18 March 2006.
60. H. Balzer, ‘Managed Pluralism: Vladimir Putin's Emerging Regime’, Post-Soviet Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 3, 2003, pp. 189–227; T. Colton and M. McFaul, Popular Choice and Managed Democracy. The Russian Elections of 1999 and 2000, Washington DC, 2003; D. Mandel, ‘“Managed Democracy”: Capital and State in Russia’, Debatte, Vol. 13, No. 2, 2005, pp. 117–36; A. Wilson, Virtual Politics: Faking Democracy in the Post-Soviet World, New Haven/London, 2005.
61. See the 2002–3 transcripts in V. Putin, Razgovor s Rossiei, Moscow, both 2003, and also the 2001 and 2005 transcripts at:<http://www.kremlin.ru/events/detail/2001/12/39982.shtml> and <http://www.kremlin.ru/events/detail/2005/09/94172.shtml>, respectively, accessed 29 March 2006.
62. Similar arguments are employed by Ellen Carnaghan with regard to in-depth interviews on democracy [E. Carnaghan, ‘Thinking about Democracy’, Slavic Review, Vol. 60, No. 2, 2001, pp. 336–66 (pp. 357–9)].
63. SPS (Soyuz Pravykh Sil, or the Union of Rightist Forces) and Yabloko were until 2003 the main ‘liberal’ parties in the Russian parliament, the State Duma.
64. 2005 ‘Inclusion without membership’ survey, question B4.
65. cf. T. Rogovskaia, ‘Russia’ in Dryzek and Holmes, op cit., pp. 92–113 (p. 106).
66. S. Holmes, ‘Cultural Legacies or State Collapse? Probing the Postcommunist Dilemma’, in M. Mandelbaum, Postcommunism: Four Perspectives, New York, 1996, pp. 22–76 (pp. 48–9).
67. Anatolii Chubais, who at the time of writing heads the Russian electricity company RAO EES Rossii, was the architect of the privatization programme and served several periods as deputy prime minister in the 1990s.
68. 2005 ‘Inclusion without Membership’ survey, Russia (see Appendix).
69. In point of fact, this is historically inaccurate: there were regular elections at every level, but voters were rarely given a free choice of candidates.
70. Ultimately, he obtained 71.3%.
71. See also S. White, S. Oates and I. McAllister, ‘Media Effects and Russian Elections, 1999–2000’, British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 35, No. 2, 2005, pp. 191–208.
72. F. Fukuyama, The End of History and the Last Man, London, 1992.