A double-edged sword: the increasing diversity of deliberative democracy

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Notes

1. M. Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, in A. Carter and G. Stokes (eds), Democratic Theory Today, Cambridge, 2002, p. 174.

2. M. Pennington, ‘Hayekian Political Economy and the Limits of Deliberative Democracy’, Political Studies, Vol. 51, 2003, pp. 722–39, at p. 723.

3. J. Femia, ‘Complexity and Deliberative Democracy’, Inquiry, Vol. 39, 1996, pp. 361–97, at p. 365.

4. A. Gundersen, The Environmental Promise of Democratic Deliberation, Madison, WI, 1995, pp. 4–5.

5. R. Eckersley, ‘Deliberative Democracy, Ecological Representation and Risk: Towards a Democracy of the Affected’, in M. Saward (ed.), Democratic Innovation: Deliberation, Representation and Association, London, 2000, pp. 117–32, at p. 120.

6. M. Sagoff, ‘Aggregation and Deliberation in Valuing Environmental Public Goods: A Look beyond Contingent Pricing’, Ecological Economics, Vol. 24, 1998, pp. 213–30.

7. J. Dryzek, Deliberative Democracy and Beyond: Liberals, Critics, Contestations, Oxford, 2000.

8. I. M. Young, Justice and the Politics of Difference, Princeton, NJ, 1990.

9. I. M. Young, ‘Communication and the Other: Beyond Deliberative Democracy’, in S. Benhabib (ed.), Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political, Princeton, NJ, 1996, pp. 120–35.

10. I. M. Young, ‘Difference as a Resource for Democratic Communication’, in J. Bohman and W. Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy, Cambridge, MA, 1997, pp. 383-406.

11. A. Arblaster, Democracy, Buckingham, 1994, p. 3.

12. M. Saward, Democracy, Cambridge, 2003, p. vii.

13. W. B. Gallie, ‘Essentially Contested Concepts’, Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Vol. 56, 1955–6, pp. 167–198.

14. Ibid.

15. M. Freeden, Ideologies and Political Theory: A Conceptual Approach, Oxford, 1996.

16. M. Saward, ‘Enacting Democracy’, Political Studies, Vol. 51, No. 1, pp. 161–79, at p. 164, 2003.

17. Arblaster, op. cit., p. 8.

18. J. Elster, ‘Introduction’, in J. Elster (ed.), Deliberative Democracy, Cambridge, 1998, pp. 1–19, at p. 8.

19. J. Cohen, ‘Democracy and Liberty’, in Elster (ed.), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 185–231, at p. 194.

20. J. Bohman, Public Deliberation: Pluralism, Complexity and Democracy, Cambridge, MA, 1996, p. 27.

21. Elster, ‘Introduction’, op. cit., p. 6.

22. Dryzek, op. cit., p. 2.

23. M. Festenstein, ‘Deliberation, Citizenship and Identity’, in M. Paaserin D'Entrèves (ed.), Democracy as Public Deliberation: New Perspectives, Manchester, 2002, pp. 88–111, at p. 103.

24. S. Benhabib, ‘Toward a Deliberative Theory of Democratic Legitimacy’, in S. Benhabib (ed.), Democracy and Difference: Contesting the Boundaries of the Political, Princeton, NJ, 1996, pp. 67–94, at p. 71.

25. B. Manin, ‘On Legitimacy and Political Deliberation’, Political Theory, Vol. 5, No. 3, 1987, pp. 338–68, p. 349.

26. Festenstein, op. cit., p. 103.

27. D. Estlund, ‘Beyond Epistemic Fairness and Deliberation: The Epistemic Dimension of Democratic Authority’, in Bohman and Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 173–204, at p. 183.

28. J. Bohman, ‘The Coming of Age of Deliberative Democracy’, Journal of Political Philosophy, Vol. 6, No. 4, 1998, pp. 400–25, at p. 403.

29. Festenstein, op. cit., p. 99.

30. L. Pellizzoni, ‘The Myth of the Best Argument: Power, Deliberation and Reason’, British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 52, No. 1, 2001, pp. 59–86.

31. Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 192.

32. Festenstein, op. cit., pp. 99–100.

33. J. Cohen, ‘Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy’, in A. Hamlin and P. Pettit (eds), The Good Polity: Normative Analysis of the State, Oxford, 1989, pp. 17–35.

34. Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 175.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. See also Festenstein, op. cit., p. 100.

38. Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 190.

39. Cohen, ‘Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy’, op. cit.

40. Festenstein, op. cit., pp. 102–3.

41. See also Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 193.

42. Estlund, op. cit., p. 197.

43. Ibid., p. 178.

44. See also Festenstein, op. cit., p. 103.

45. M. Walzer, Thick and Thin, Notre Dame, IN, 1994.

46. I. Kant, ‘Perpetual Peace’, in L. White Beck (ed.), Kant: On History, Indianapolis, 1957, p. 129.

47. J. Rawls, Political Liberalism, New York, 1993.

48. J. Habermas, Between Facts and Norms: Contributions to a Discourse Theory on Law and Democracy, Cambridge, 1996.

49. Bohman, Public Deliberation, op. cit., p. 26.

50. Rawls, Political Liberalism, op. cit., p. 227.

51. J. Rawls, ‘The Idea of Public Reason Revisited’, University of Chicago Law Review, Vol. 94, No. 3, 1997, pp. 765–807.

52. J. Elster, ‘The Market and the Forum: Three Varieties of Political Theory’, in Bohman and Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 3–33, at p. 12.

53. D. Miller, ‘Deliberative Democracy and Social Choice’, in D. Held (ed.), Prospects for Democracy, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 74–9, at p. 82.

54. Benhabib, op. cit., p. 72.

55. R. Goodin, ‘Publicity, Accountability, and Discursive Defensibility’, in R. Goodin (ed.), Motivating Political Morality, Oxford, 1992, p. 135.

56. Rawls, Political Liberalism, op. cit., p. 227.

57. R. Goodin, ‘Democratic Deliberation Within’, in J. Fishkin and P. Laslett (eds), Debating Deliberative Democracy, Oxford, 2003, pp. 54–79, at pp. 63-4.

58. M. Saward, ‘Less than Meets the Eye: Democratic Legitimacy and Deliberative Theory’, in M. Saward (ed.), Democratic Innovation: Deliberation, Representation and Association, London, 2000, pp. 66–77, at p. 68.

59. Goodin, ‘Democratic Deliberation Within’, op. cit., pp. 63-4.

60. A. Gundersen, The Socratic Citizen: A Theory of Deliberative Democracy, Oxford, 2000, p. 98.

61. Ibid.

62. Ibid., pp. 98–100.

63. Ibid., p. 101.

64. Elster, ‘The Market and the Forum’, op. cit., p. 10.

65. G. Brennan and L. Lomasky, Democracy and Decision: The Pure Theory of Electoral Preference, Cambridge, 1993, pp. 33-4.

66. Cohen, ‘Democracy and Liberty’, op. cit., p. 186.

67. This is dependent, of course, upon there being an established majority that is apparent to the participants, and as preferences will change during deliberatively democratic debate, this majority may change during the process.

68. D. Miller, ‘Is Deliberative Democracy Unfair to Disadvantaged Groups?’, in D. Miller, Citizenship and National Identity, Cambridge, 2000, pp. 142–60, at p. 152.

69. Femia, op. cit., pp. 378–81.

70. Manin, op. cit., p. 353.

71. R. Dahl, ‘A Democratic Dilemma: System Effectiveness versus Citizen Participation’, Political Science Quarterly, Vol. 109, No. 1, 1994, pp. 23–34, at p. 31.

72. T. Christiano, ‘The Significance of Public Deliberation’, in Bohman and Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 243–77, at p. 260.

73. G. Gaus, ‘Reason, Justification, and Consensus: Why Democracy Can't Have it All’, in Bohman and Rehg (eds), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 205–42.

74. Cohen, ‘Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy’, op. cit., p. 23.

75. Habermas, op. cit., pp. 17–19.

76. J. Knight and J. Johnson, ‘Aggregation and Deliberation: On the Possibility of Democratic Legitimacy’, Political Theory, Vol. 22, No. 2, 1994, pp. 277–96, at p. 289.

77. Ibid., p. 286.

78. J. Fearon, ‘Deliberation as Discussion’, in Elster (ed.), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 44–68, at p. 57.

79. Christiano, op. cit., p. 249.

80. J. Mansbridge, Beyond Adversary Democracy, London, 1980, p. 65.

81. I. Budge, ‘Deliberative Democracy versus Direct Democracy—Plus Political Parties!’, in Saward (ed.), Innovations in Democracy, op. cit., pp. 195–209, at p. 203.

82. Christiano, op. cit., p. 249.

83. Femia, op. cit., p. 378.

84. Cohen, ‘Democracy and Liberty’, op. cit., p. 197.

85. Habermas, op. cit., pp. 304–5.

86. Young, ‘Communication and the Other’, op. cit., p. 127.

87. Ibid., p. 126.

88. Mansbridge, op. cit., p. 32.

89. D. Gambetta, ‘“Claro!”: An Essay on Discursive Machismo’, in Elster (ed.), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 19–43, at p. 21.

90. C. Gould, Rethinking Democracy: Freedom and Social Co-operation in Politics, Economics and Society, New York, 1988, p. 18.

91. Young, ‘Difference as a Resource for Democratic Communication’, op. cit., p. 399.

92. Dryzek, op. cit., p. 38.

93. A. Przeworski, ‘Deliberation and Ideological Domination’, in Elster (ed.), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 140–60, at p. 142.

94. J. Johnson, ‘Arguing for Deliberation: Some Skeptical Considerations’, in Elster (ed.), Deliberative Democracy, op. cit., pp. 161–84.

95. S. Elkin, ‘Thinking Constitutionally: The Problem of Deliberative Democracy’, Social Philosophy and Policy, Vol. 21, No. 1, 2004, pp. 39–75, at p. 61.

96. Young, ‘Communication and the Other’, op. cit., pp. 123–5.

97. L. Sanders, ‘Against Deliberation’, Political Theory, Vol. 25, No. 3, 1997, pp. 347–76, at pp. 365–6.

98. Ibid., p. 353.

99. Dryzek, op. cit.

100. Miller, ‘Is Deliberative Democracy Unfair to Disadvantaged Groups?’, op. cit.

101. S. Elstub, ‘Towards an Inclusive Social Policy in the UK: The Need for Democratic Deliberation in Voluntary and Community Associations’, Voluntas, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2006, pp. 17–39.

102. Young, ‘Difference as a Resource for Democratic Communication’, op. cit.

103. Benhabib, op. cit., p. 82.

104. Dryzek, op. cit., p. 67.

105. Miller, ‘Is Deliberative Democracy Unfair to Disadvantaged Groups?’, op. cit., pp. 156–7.

106. A. Gutmann and D. Thompson, Democracy and Disagreement, London, 1996, p. 137.

107. S. Thompson and P. Hoggett, ‘The Emotional Dynamics of Deliberative Democracy’, Policy & Politics, Vol. 29, No. 3, 2001, pp. 351–64.

108. Robert Goodin, ‘Laundering Preferences’, in Jon. Elster and Aanund Hyland (ed) Foundations of social theory, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986, op. cit.

109. Gutmann and Thompson, op. cit.

110. Miller, ‘Is Deliberative Democracy Unfair to Disadvantaged Groups?’, op. cit., p. 205.

111. R. Blaug, Democracy: Real and Ideal: Discourse Ethics and Radical Politic, New York, 1999, pp. 148–9.

112. Femia, op. cit., p. 370.

113. Johnson, op. cit., pp. 168–70.

114. B. Barber, Strong Democracy, Berkeley, 1984, p. 136.

115. Cohen, ‘Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy’, op. cit., pp. 29–30.

116. See also Benhabib, op. cit., p. 70.

117. G. Sher, Beyond Neutrality: Perfectionism and Politics, Cambridge, 1997, p. 5.

118. See also Dryzek, op. cit., p. 43.

119. Goodin, ‘Publicity, Accountability, and Discursive Defensibility’, op. cit., pp. 138–40.

120. E. E. Schattsneider, The Semi-sovereign People: A Realist's View of Democracy in America, Orlando, 1975.

121. Saward, Democracy, 2003b, op. cit.

122. Rawls, Political Liberalism, op. cit., p. 137.

123. J. Madison, The Federalist Papers, New York, 1966.

124. J. Bessette, The Mild Voice of Reason: Deliberative Democracy and American National Government, London, 1994.

125. Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 174.

126. Elkin, op. cit.

127. Dryzek, op. cit., p. 3.

128. Warren, ‘Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 174.

129. Dryzek, op. cit., pp. 17–27.

130. Manin, op. cit., p. 357.

131. Budge, op. cit., p. 198.

132. Cohen, ‘Deliberation and Democratic Legitimacy’, op. cit., p. 31.

133. Manin, op. cit., p. 357.

134. R. Michels, Political Parties, E. and C. Paul (trans.), New York, 1959.

135. Barber, op. cit., p. 136.

136. Bohman, Public Deliberation, op. cit., pp. 187–8.

137. J. Fishkin and R. Luskin, ‘The Quest for Deliberative Democracy’, in Saward (ed.), Innovations in Democracy, op. cit., pp. 17–27.

138. Ibid., pp. 20–1.

139. G. Smith, ‘Toward Deliberative Institutions’, in Saward (ed.), Innovations in Democracy, op. cit., pp. 29–39, at p. 31.

140. Ibid., p. 33.

141. Fishkin and Luskin, ‘The Quest for Deliberative Democracy’, op. cit., p. 21.

142. Smith, ‘Toward Deliberative Institutions’, op. cit., p. 33.

143. N. Fraser, ‘Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contribution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy’, in C. Calhoun (ed.), Habermas and the Public Sphere, Cambridge, MA, 1992, pp. 107–42, at p. 110.

144. Habermas, op. cit., pp. 363-4.

145. M. Warren, Democracy and Association, Princeton, NJ, 2001, p. 212.

146. Fraser, op. cit., p.120.

147. J. Squires, ‘Deliberation and Decision-making: Discontinuity in the Two-track Theory’, in Passerin D'Entrèves (ed.), Democracy as Public Deliberation, op. cit., pp. 133–156, at p. 142.

148. Habermas, op. cit.

149. Bohman, Public Deliberation, op. cit., p. 179.

150. S. Elstub, Towards a Deliberative and Associational Democracy, Edinburgh, forthcoming 2008.

151. A. Fung and E. O. Wright, ‘Deepening Democracy: Innovations in Empowered Participatory Governance’, Political Society, Vol. 29, 2001, pp. 5–42.

152. Dryzek, op. cit.

153. P. Hirst, Associative Democracy: New Forms of Economic and Social Governance, Cambridge, 1994.

154. J. Cohen and J. Rogers, ‘Secondary Associations and Democratic Governance’, in E. O. Wright (ed.), Associations and Democracy, New York, 1995, pp. 7–98.

155. C. Offe, Modernity and the State: East, West, Cambridge, MA, 1996.

156. P. Perczynski, ‘Active Citizenship and Associative Democracy’, in Saward (ed.), Democratic Innovation, op. cit., pp. 161–71.

157. Warren, Democracy and Association, op. cit.

158. Elstub, ‘Towards an Inclusive Social Policy in the UK’, op. cit.

159. Idem, Towards a Deliberative and Associational Democracy, op. cit.

160. Saward, Democracy, op. cit., p. viii.