Glass Ceiling in Academic Administration in Turkey: 1990s versus 2000s

Abstract

This paper assesses the glass ceiling for academics in the Turkish universities with reference to top administration positions: rectors and deans. Glass ceiling indicators show that the glass ceiling thickened from the 1990s to late 2000s. The findings are discussed against the background of the transformation in the Turkish universities in the last decades and in the context of three areas of challenges: the hierarchy deeply rooted in the current higher education system, the restructuring scheme with the recently introduced public administration reform law and marketisation of higher education.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Research Fund of the University of Istanbul: Project no.: UDP‐1362/23072007. Thanks are due to S. Acuner, O. Akduran, A. Alada, H. Caglayan, B. Senatalar, S. Ucan‐Cubukcu, and S. Yildiz for reference material; to O. Akduran for superb assistance with the data; to Z. Gambetti, O. Koymen, A. Yakar‐Onal, S. Ozar, F. Ozbay, N. Ozkaplan, and the referees for comments on earlier versions.

Notes

1. For example, see Acar (1991), Kose (1998), and Ozbilgin and Healy (2004) for Turkey; Benschop and Brouns (2003) for the Netherlands; Kloot (2004), Probert (2005), and White (2003) for Australia; Coskun (1996) for Germany; Knights and Richards (2003), Ledwith and Manfredi (2000), and Morley (1994) for the UK; Bailyn (2003) and Krefting (2003) for the USA; Mischau (2001) for the EU; Olsen, Kyvik, and Hovdhaugen (2005) for Norway; Toren (2001) for Israel.

2. For example, see Catalyst (2000), Oakley (2000), Newsweek (February 27, 2006), The Economist (23–29 July 2005), and also www.catalyst.org for sectoral assessments.

3. However, note that there may be differences in the definitions for full professorship, so data might not be comparable (EC, 2006, pp. 100–102). White (2003) warns against data for Australia, which in some cases do not distinguish between associate and full professorship. Another complication arises regarding the qualifications. For example, White (2003) states that a typical Australian female professor is 51–60 years old. Turkish professors are much younger, females inclusive, as promotion to full professorship by (even before) the age of 40 is common.

4. As of 2006, the highest annual tuition fee in public universities, for example, for medicine was $335, while it was $20,000 in a private university. There are variations in fees charged by private universities, the lowest being around $7,000. In view of the fact that per capita income was $7,583 in 2006, education in private universities is available to higher income groups.

5. Ersezer and Uluturk (2008, p. 108) cite a previous CHE report where these ratios were 2% (fees), 79% (public budget), and 27% (own) in 1993.

6. Each faculty is represented by the dean and an elected professor in the senate. Heads of postgaduate schools and research institutes are also included.

7. Two out of 18 members are women in 2009. For further details, see http://www.yok.gov.tr/content/view/13/49/long,tr_TR

8. As of end‐2008, the number of universities increased to 128, 94 of which are public and 34 are private. Since the new universities are in the process of establishment and recruitment, data are not compatible.

9. There were roughly 560,000 university students in 1993. The number is roughly 2,200,000 in 2006. Student placement in universities, private, and public inclusive is based on a very competitive entrance exam. Seventeen percent in 1995 and 21% in 2005 of applicants were enrolled. These ratios increase to 30% and 33%, respectively, with enrolment in the Open University (YOK, 2007, p. 225).

10. For example, the figure 25% for dental sciences in Column 5 is found by dividing the number (4) of female deans in public universities by the number (16) of deanship posts in dental sciences in public universities, and so on.

11. However, literature‐language field does not fit here, all deans being male. The number of faculties, all in public universities, is very small (6). So, we can regard this field as conforming to a typical traditional public organisation having almost no interaction with the market.

12. Although these summary measures (i.e. the OSI or Chi‐square test) are appropriate tools to illustrate whether there is discrimination with respect to gender or not, they are not reliable especially with skewed/polarised data like ours. For example, as of 2006, there were 77 posts for rectors, 634 posts for deans in Turkish universities. The third category “Others” is the pool of other (10,683) professors, involved with some administration work in one way or another. Since over 90% of both female and male professors fall in this category due to restricted number of upper posts for both genders, the OSI turns out to be very low indicating almost no discrimination even if there are no women in both top posts! For example, see Watts (1992).

13. Note that in an ideal society, equal empowerment of the sexes would yield 50% representation of both sexes, because this ratio mirrors the demographic division of sexes. This value usually does not apply for professions.