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Culture, Health & Sexuality
An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care
Volume 13, 2011 - Issue 4
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Original Articles

Heteronormativity and ‘troubled’ masculinities among men who have sex with men in Addis Ababa

Pages 457-469 | Received 12 May 2010, Accepted 10 Nov 2010, Published online: 18 Jan 2011
 

Abstract

In most societies, heterosexuality is the dominant way of expressing sexuality and masculinity and those men outside of it are stigmatised and discriminated against. This paper explores the sexual lives of men who have sex with men and the personal and social conflicts that arise as they attempt to both live up to societal expectations and manage their sexual desires. It critically explores how an overriding heteronormativity structures and influences men's perception and understanding of sexuality and masculinity/femininity. The paper draws on data from 24 in-depth/life history interviews, one focus group discussion and ethnographic observation conducted between July 2006 and June 2007. The study reveals that powerful and dominating beliefs about heteronormativity and masculinity result in men who have sex with men dealing with a number of issues of personal conflict and contradiction resulting in uncertainty, resentment, ambivalence, worry and discomfort. Heteronormativity or the expectations of parents, community and society at large is far more influential on the sexuality of men who have sex with men than their own individual desires and needs. The paper concludes that there is little room for individuality for Ethiopian men who have sex with men with their sexual bodies ‘belonging’ to parents, families and to society at large.

Dans la plupart des sociétés, l'hétérosexualité est le mode d'expression dominant de la sexualité et de la virilité, et les hommes auxquels elle ne correspond pas sont stigmatisés et subissent des discriminations. Cet article explore les vies sexuelles des hommes qui ont des rapports avec des hommes (HSH) et les conflits sociaux qui émergent alors que ceux-ci tentent à la fois de vivre en fonction des attentes sociétales et de gérer leurs désirs sexuels. De manière critique, il examine comment une hétéronormativité prédominante structure et influence la perception et la compréhension de la sexualité et des virilité/féminité chez les hommes. L'article exploite des données issues de 24 entretiens en profondeur/centrés sur les récits de vie, d'un groupe de discussion thématique et d'une observation ethnographique conduits entre juillet 2006 et juin 2007. Les résultats révèlent que des croyances fortes et dominantes sur l'hétéronormativité et la virilité ont pour conséquence la gestion par les HSH de certains conflits et contradiction personnels, qui est source d'incertitudes, de ressentiment, d'ambivalence, d'inquiétude et d'inconfort. L'hétéronormativité – ou les attentes des parents, de la communauté et de la société au sens large – a plus d'influence sur la sexualité des HSH que leurs propres désirs et besoins. L'article conclut qu'il existe peu d'espace pour les individualités des HSH éthiopiens, leurs corps sexuels « appartenant » aux parents, aux familles et à la société au sens large.

En la mayoría de sociedades, donde la heterosexualidad es la forma dominante de expresar la sexualidad y la masculinidad, los hombres fuera de este círculo sufren estigma y discriminación. En este artículo analizamos las vidas sexuales de hombres que tienen relaciones sexuales con hombres (HSH) y los conflictos personales y sociales que surgen cuando intentan vivir según las expectativas de la sociedad y controlar sus deseos sexuales. Analizamos desde un punto de vista crítico de qué modo la heteronormatividad predominante estructura e influye en la percepción de los hombres y su comprensión de la sexualidad y masculinidad/feminidad. Este ensayo se basa en datos extraídos a partir de 24 entrevistas exhaustivas sobre el historial, de un grupo de discusión y de observaciones etnográficas llevadas a cabo entre julio de 2006 y junio de 2007. Los resultados indican que las creencias dominantes y convincentes sobre la heteronormatividad y la masculinidad llevan a que los hombres que tienen relaciones sexuales con hombres se enfrentan a una serie de problemas relacionados con conflictos personales y contradicciones, lo que les hace inseguros e incómodos y les provoca resentimiento, ambivalencia y preocupación. La heteronormatividad o las expectativas de los padres, la comunidad y la sociedad en su conjunto influyen mucho más en la sexualidad de estos hombres que su propios deseos y necesidades individuales. Concluimos este artículo exponiendo que hay poco espacio para la individualidad de los HSH de Etiopía puesto que sus cuerpos sexuales “pertenecen” a los padres, las familias y a la sociedad en general.

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank the former Department of Sociology and Social Anthropology at Addis Ababa University for financing the study upon which this article is based. The preliminary draft of this paper was developed when I was a visiting fellow at the Institute of Development Studies at the University of Sussex, UK. Thanks to Andrea Cornwall and Susan Jolly for arranging the fellowship. The preliminary draft was revised, refined and submitted for publication when I was visiting scholar at Gender and Development Unit, University of Bergen, Norway. Very special thanks to Haldis Haukanes for arranging productive stay in Bergen. I also thank Andy Seale and Susan Jolly for their comments on the earlier version of this paper. Last but not least, this paper benefited from two rounds of constructive comments provided by four anonymous reviewers.

Notes

1. This conclusion, however, should not be taken to imply that I downplay the role of agency and power that men exercise over their bodies. The body is often a site of resistance – of sensation, feeling – which may be both culturally constructed and personally ‘felt' in ways that vary from heteronormative ideologies. Viewed from this perspective, there is no one full ‘prevailer’ over the body, but rather several forces and actors including agency and power exert influence on how to use the body.

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