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Culture, Health & Sexuality
An International Journal for Research, Intervention and Care
Volume 19, 2017 - Issue 12
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Articles

Changing practices and shifting meanings of female genital cutting among the Maasai of Arusha and Manyara regions of Tanzania

, &
Pages 1344-1359 | Received 01 Jul 2016, Accepted 27 Mar 2017, Published online: 18 Apr 2017
 

Abstract

Using mixed methods that combined participant observation and semi-structured in-depth interviews, this study looked at changing practices and shifting meanings of female genital cutting among the Maasai people in Tanzania. The findings suggest that an increasing social pressure to abandon female genital cutting has inspired the hiding of the practice, causing the actual cutting to become detached from its traditional ceremonial connotations. This detaching of cutting from ceremony has created a shift in meanings: the ceremony still carries the meaning of passage into adulthood, while the cutting seems to function as a way of inscribing Maasai identity into the body. The detaching of genital cutting from ceremony offers those willing to continue the practice the opportunity to do so without being prosecuted, and those unwilling to undergo or perform the practice the opportunity to evade it by faking the cutting without being socially sanctioned for it. Findings also suggest changing attitudes towards the practice among the younger generation as the result of education. Maasai culture and the practice of female genital cutting are not static but actively challenged and reinterpreted from within the community, with formally schooled and women taking up leading roles in reshaping gender norms.

Résumé

En s’appuyant sur une étude multi-méthodes qui a combiné une observation participative avec des entretiens en profondeur semi-structurés, cette étude a examiné les pratiques et les significations des mutilations génitales féminines (MGF) chez les Masaï de Tanzanie. Les résultats suggèrent qu’une pression sociale croissante pour l’abandon des MGF a inspiré la dissimulation de la pratique, qui a eu pour conséquence une déconnexion de la coupure elle-même des connotations cérémoniales traditionnelles. Cette déconnexion a entraîné un changement des significations : la cérémonie garde encore la signification du passage à l’âge adulte, tandis que l’excision semble fonctionner comme un moyen de graver l’identité masaï dans le corps. La déconnexion de l’excision de la cérémonie offre, à ceux qui souhaitent perpétuer la pratique, l’opportunité de le faire sans être poursuivis, et à ceux ne souhaitant pas subir ou réaliser l’acte d’excision, l’opportunité d’y échapper en le simulant, tout en ne subissant pas de sanction sociale. Les résultats suggèrent également que les attitudes changent vis-à-vis de la pratique dans la plus jeune génération, en raison de l’éducation. La culture et la pratique des MGF ne sont pas statiques. Elles sont activement remises en question et réinterprétées à l’intérieur de la communauté, les jeunes officiellement scolarisés et les femmes reprenant des rôles majeurs dans la refonte des normes de genre.

Resumen

A partir de la realización de un estudio de métodos mixtos que combinó la observación al participante con entrevistas estructuradas a profundidad, el presente artículo aborda la transformación de las prácticas y los cambios de los significados asociados a la ablación genital femenina en el pueblo masái de Tanzania. Los hallazgos al respecto sugieren que la creciente presión social encaminada a abandonar esta práctica ha determinado que la misma sea ocultada, provocando que la ablación sea separada de sus tradicionales connotaciones ceremoniales. Dicha separación ha dado lugar a modificaciones de los significados: por un lado, la ceremonia continúa conllevando el significado de paso a la adultez, mientras que, por otro, la ablación parece funcionar como una manera de grabar la identidad masái en el cuerpo. En este sentido, el hecho de que la ablación haya sido separada de la ceremonia hace posible que aquellas personas dispuestas a seguir con la práctica tengan la oportunidad de realizarla sin ser perseguidas, en tanto que quienes abjuran de someterse a ella o de llevarla a cabo pueden evadirla mediante la simulación sin ser socialmente sancionadas. Por otra parte, los hallazgos sugieren que, debido a la mayor escolaridad, las actitudes mostradas por una generación más joven hacia la práctica también están cambiando. Por lo que, ni la cultura masái ni la práctica de ablación genital femenina son estáticas; al interior de la comunidad las mismas están siendo cuestionadas y reinterpretadas, en un proceso en que las mujeres con educación formal están desempeñado importantes roles para propiciar la transformación de las normas de género.

Acknowledgements

The authors gratefully acknowledge Panin Kerika, Lendukay Kimay, Daniel Orkery, Shayo Alakara Sangeti and Lazaro of the Ngorongoro Youth Development Association for their assistance with paperwork and access to the field; Tajewo Agbert Kulinja, Lekishon Tutonyo Ndutuu, and Elisa Isaya for being excellent research assistants and interlocutors; Regina Ngurumwa; Singo Mollel and the presidents of Manyara Secondary School and Baraka Primary School; the communities that warmly welcomed the first author, and especially the families of Miriam, Flora, and Agbert in Malambo; Mbiroi, Sanare, Alex, and Parit in Baraka; Daniel in Ngorongoro; Musa and Elisa in Monduli; and Lekishon in Mfereji for offering her a home during her fieldwork; Khalfani, Abdul, and Kisimba for their warm hospitality in Arusha; Gregory Valentine Yurra for his support and hospitality in Arusha; Liza Van der Stock for her support during data collection; and Naisula Lepariyo for the inspiring conversations. Finally, we are grateful to the anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions.

Notes

1. Such as the Tanzanian Media Women’s Association (TAMWA), the Legal and Human Rights Centre (LHRC), and the Tanzanian Women Lawyers Association (TAWLA)

2. Male circumcisers only circumcise men, while female circumcisers only circumcise women.

3. Age-set refers to a group of men who have all been circumcised during the same specific period. A new age-set is declared every 12 to 14 years.

4. Respondents were given fictional names to preserve anonymity. The information between brackets gives the respondent’s fictional name, the place of respondent’s residence, educational level, age-set (for male respondents) or life phase (for female respondents), and date on which the interview took place.

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