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Notes
Perhaps one of the first documented cases of a human using a technological innovation to listen to underwater sound is from a 1490 notebook by Leonardo da Vinci. In order to listen to distant ships, da Vinci describes placing a long tube into the water and holding it to the ear. From these simple beginnings many other and mostly much more recent technological advances in marine acoustics have provided a diverse set of instruments that are available to academic, government and industry researchers to monitor marine mammals and the oceans they inhabit. T.G. Bell, Sonar and Submarine Detection, Report 545, United States Navy, Underwater Sound Laboratory (1962).
J. W. Bradbury & S. L. Vehrencamp, Principles of Animal Communication (1998).
D. Rendall, D. L. Cheney, & R. M. Seyfarth, Proximate Factors Mediating “Contact” Calls in Adult Female Baboons, 114 J. Comp. Psychol. 36–46 (2000).
J. H. Poole et al., The Social Contexts of Some Very Low Frequency Calls of African Elephants, 22 Behav. Ecology & Sociobiol., 385–392 (1988).
R. Wanker & J. Fischer, Intra- and Inter-Individual Variation in the Contact Calls of Spectacled Parrotlets (Forpus conspicillatus), 138 Behaviour 709–726 (2001).
J.K.B. Ford, Vocal Traditions among Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) in Coastal Waters of British Columbia, 69 Can. J. Zool. 1454–1483 (1991).
Personal observation.
I. Stirling, Observations on the Behavior of the New Zealand Fur Seal (Arctocephalus fosteri), 51 J. Mammol. 766–778 (1970).
A.H. Harcourt & K.J. Stewart, Function and Meaning of Wild Gorilla “Close” Calls, 133 Behaviour 827–845 (1996).
R. L. Robbins, Vocal Communication in Free-Ranging African Wild Dogs (Lycaon pictus), 137 Behaviour 1271–1298 (2000).
B. Heinrich, J.M. Marzluff, & C.S. Marzluff, Common Ravens Are Attracted by Appeasement Calls of Food Discoverers When Attacked, 110 The Auk 247–254 (1993).
D.M. Kitchen et al., Loud Calls as Indicators of Dominance in Male Baboons (Papio cynocephalus ursinus), 53 Behav. Ecology Sociobiol. 374–384 (2003).
A.V. Phillips & I. Stirling, Vocal Repertoire of South American Fur Seals, Arctocephalus Australis: Structure, Function, and Context, 79 Can. J. Zool. 420–437 (2001).
C. Catchpole & P. J. B. Slater, Bird Song: Biological Themes and Variations (1995).
R.S. Peterson & G.A. Bartholomew, Airborne Vocal Communication in the California Sea Lion, Zalophus californianus, 17 Animal Behav. 17–24 (1969).
A. Arak, Vocal interactions, Call Matching and Territoriality in a Sri Lankan Treefrog, Philautus leucorhinus (Rhacophoridae), 31 Animal. Behav. 292–302 (1983).
M. Martins & C. F. B. Haddad, Vocalizations and Reproductive Behaviour in the Smith Frog, Hyla faber Wied (Amphibia: Hylidae), 9 Amphibia-Reptilia 49–60 (1988).
J. Grinnell & K. McComb, Roaring and social communication in African Lions: The Limitations Imposed by Listeners, 62 Animal Behav. 93–98 (2001).
J.L. Blickley & G.L. Patricelli, Impacts of Anthropogenic Noise on Wildlife: Appraising the Research Basis for Standards and Mitigation, 13 J. Int’l Wildlife L. & Pol’y (2010).
A.E. Storey, Function of Manx Shearwater Calls in Mate Attraction, 89 Behaviour 73–88 (1984).
E.M. Oleson et al., Behavioral Context of Call Production by Eastern North Pacific Blue Whales, 330 Marine Ecology Progress Series 269–284 (2007).
S.M. Davidson & G.S. Wilkinson, Function of Male Song in the Greater White-Lined Bat, Saccopteryx bilineata, 67 Animal Behav. 883–891 (2004).
H.C. Gerhardt, The Evolution of Vocalization in Frogs and Toads, 25 Ann. Rev. Ecology Systematics 293–324 (1994).
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J.A. Thomas, C. Moss, & M. Vater, Echolocation in Bats and Dolphins (2004).
There was really no defining moment in the transition from analog to digital analysis. The mathematical and physical basis for the two methods of analysis is the same. Rather, it was a gradual change from analog to digital, which continues to this day with incremental improvements in digital technology. This allows for the automation of many of the tasks that previously took continual human input.
Pers. comm., Dr. Brad Hanson, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, Washington. On file with the author.
National Marine Fisheries Service, Designation of critical habitat for Southern Resident killer whales: Biological Report (National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Region, Seattle, Washington, October 2006). Available online at http://www.nwr.noaa.gov/Marine-Mammals/Whales-Dolphins-Porpoise/Killer-Whales/ESA-Status/upload/SRKW-CH-Bio-Rpt.pdf
W.M.X. Zimmer et al., Passive Acoustic Detection of Deep-Diving Beaked Whales, 124 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 2823–2832 (2008).
These techniques include peak energy detection or peak energy detectors in specific frequency bands, matched filters, spectrogram correlation, neural networks, and hidden Markov models, an explanation of which is beyond the scope of this article.
R.A. Charif, P.J. Clapham, & C.W. Clark, Acoustic Detections of Singing Humpback Whales in Deep Waters off the British Isles, 17 Marine Mammal Sci. 751–768 (2001).
C.W. Clark, J.F. Borsani, & G. Notarbartolo di Sciara, Vocal Activity of Fin Whales, Balaenoptera physalus, in the Ligurian Sea, 18 Marine Mammal Sci. 286–295 (2002).
M.A. McDonald et al., An Acoustic Survey of Beaked Whales at Cross Seamount Near Hawaii, 125 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 624 (2009).
D.K. Mellinger et al., Seasonal Occurrence of North Atlantic Right Whale (Eubalaena glacialis) Vocalizations at Two Sites on the Scotian Shelf, 23 Marine Mammal Sci. 856–867 (2007).
H.L. Van Trees, Detection, estimation, and modulation theory (1968).
D.K. Mellinger & C.W. Clark, Methods for Automatic Detection of Mysticete Sounds, 29 Marine Freshwater Behav. Physiol. 163–182 (1997).
D.K. Mellinger & C.W. Clark, Recognizing Transient Low-Frequency Whale Sounds by Spectrogram Correlation, 107 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 3518–3529 (2000).
C. Erbe & A.R. King, Automatic Detection of Marine Mammals Using Information Entropy, 124 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 2833–2840 (2008).
McDonald et al., supra note 33 at 624.
MobySound.org (http://hmsc.oregonstate.edu/projects/MobySound/index.html) provides good examples of archived annotated recordings of various marine mammals that can be used to test detection algorithms.
Salish Sea Hydrophone Network http://www.orcasound.net
A. Traxler, J. Wood, & R. Osborne, Southern Resident Killer Whale Sighting Compilation 1990–2008, (Final Contract Report AB133F-07-CN-0221, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, National Marine Fisheries Service, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, Seattle, Washington, 2008).
Right Whale Listening Network http://www.allaboutbirds.org/NetCommunity/Page.aspx?pid=430
L. Lippsett, Drawing a Line in the Sea, 47 Oceanus 14–21 (2009).
S. E. Moore et al., Seasonal Variation in Reception of Fin Whale Calls at Five Geographic Areas in the North Pacific, 14 Marine Mammal Sci. 617–627 (1998).
Mellinger et al., supra note 34.
L.M. Munger et al., North Pacific Right Whale (Eubalaena japonica) Seasonal and Diel Calling Patterns From Long-Term Acoustic Recordings in the Southeastern Bering Sea, 2000–2006, 24 Marine Mammal Sci. 795–814 (2008).
D.K. Mellinger, K.M. Stafford, & C.G. Fox, Seasonal Occurrence of Sperm Whale (Physeter macrochephalus) Sounds in the Gulf of Alaska, 1999–2001, 20 Marine Mammal Sci. 48–62 (2004).
K.M. Stafford, S.L. Nieukirk, & C.G. Fox, Geographic and Seasonal Variation of Blue Whale Calls in the North Pacific, 3 J. Cetacean Res. Mgmt. 65–76 (2001); K.M. Stafford, S.L. Nieukirk, & C.G. Fox, Low-Frequency Whale Sounds Recorded on Hydrophones Moored in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, 106 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 3687–3698 (1999).
S.T. Buckland et al., Introduction to distance sampling (2001).
D.K. Mellinger et al., An Overview of Fixed Passive Acoustic Observation Methods for Cetaceans, 20 Oceanography 36 (2007).
See the literature cited supra notes 33–37. It is still the case, though, that this information is needed for each population that will be acoustically censused.
It is less important to detect all occurrences of animals in the sample areas than it is to ensure that the estimates are unbiased. The estimation of group size from detection events will be helped by a better understanding of what is driving the variability in calling rates.
J.D. Wood, Communication and Spatial Cohesion of the African Elephant Loxodonta africana (unpublished paper, Graduate Group in Geography, University of California, Davis, 2003).
J.D. Wood, C.E. O’Connell-Rodwell, & S.L. Klemperer, Using Seismic Sensors to Detect Elephants and Other Large Mammals: A Potential Census Technique, 42 J. Applied Ecology 587–594 (2005).
Buckland et al., supra note 50.
C.W. Clark & W.T. Ellison, Numbers and Distributions of Bowhead Whales, Balaena mysticetus, Based on the 1985 Acoustic Study off Pt. Barrow, Alaska (Report to the Scientific Committee, International Whaling Commission, 1988, at 365–370); C.W. Clark & W.T. Ellison, Numbers and Distributions of Bowhead Whales, Balaena mysticetus, Based on the 1986 Acoustic Study off Pt. Barrow, Alaska (Report to the Scientific Committee, International Whaling Commission, 1989, at 297–303).
J. Barlow & B.L. Taylor, Estimates of Sperm Whale Abundance in the Northeastern Temperate Pacific From a Combined Acoustic and Visual Survey, 21 Marine Mammal Sci. 429–445 (2005).
S.L. Swartz et al., Visual and Acoustic Survey of Humpback Whales (Megaptera Novaeangliae) in the Eastern and Southern Caribbean Sea (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, NOAA Fisheries, Southeast Fisheries Science Center, 2002 at 37).
M.A. McDonald & C.G. Fox, Passive Acoustic Methods Applied to Fin Whale Population Density Estimation, 105 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 2643–2651 (1999).
S. Fletcher et al., Onboard Acoustic Recording From Diving Northern Elephant Seals, 100 J. Acoustical Soc. Am. 2531–2539 (1996).
S.J. Insley et al., Acoustic Determination of Activity and Flipper Stroke Rate in Foraging Northern Fur Seal Females, 4 Endangered Species Res.147–155 (2008).
S.K. Hooker et al., Ascent Exhalations of Antarctic Fur Seals: A Behavioural Adaptation for Breath-Hold Diving? 272 Proc. R. Soc. B 355–363 (2005).
J.L. Sumich & M.A. May, Scaling and Remote Monitoring of Tidal Lung Volumes of Young Gray Whales, Eschrichtius robustus, 25 Marine Mammal Sci. 221–228 (2009).
R.J. Urick, Principles of underwater sound (1983).
K. Kimura, On the Detection of Fish-Groups by an Acoustic Method, 24 J. Imperial Fisheries Inst. Tokyo 41–45 (1929).
For a review of the history of active acoustics in fisheries research, see P.G. Fernandes et al., Acoustic Applications in Fisheries Science: The ICES Contribution, 215 ICES Marine Sci. Symposia 483–492 (2002).
C. Guinet et al., Use of a Video Sonar as a New Tool to Study Marine Mammals. Proc. 7th Annual Conference, European Cetacean Society, Inverness, Scotland, February 1993.
T. Similä, Sonar Observations of Killer Whales (Orcinus orca) Feeding on Herring Schools, 23 Aquatic Mammals 119–126 (1997).
L. Nøttestad, Extensive Gas Bubble Release in Norwegian Spring-Spawning Herring (Clupea harengus) During Predator Avoidance, 55 ICES J. Marine Sci. 1133–1140 (1998).
L. Nøttestad et al., How Whales Influence Herring School Dynamics in Cold-Front Areas of the Norwegian Sea, 59 ICES J. Marine Sci. 393–400 (2002).
K.J. Benoit-Bird, B. Würsig, & C.J. McFadden, Dusky Dolphin (Lagenorhynchus obscures) Foraging in Different Habitats: Active Acoustic Detection of Dolphins and Their Prey, 20 Marine Mammal Sci. 215–231 (2004).
Snohomish County Public Utility District No. 1, Admiralty Inlet Pilot Project: Draft License Application (submitted to the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission, December 28, 2009).
W.J. Richardson et al., Marine mammals and noise (1995).
National Research Council, Ocean noise and marine mammals (2003).
This distance will vary greatly depending on the species vocalizing and the location. Large baleen whales can be detected in the open ocean over tens of kilometers.
The Whale Museum and Beam Reach Marine Science and Sustainability School, Friday Harbor, WA 98250, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
The author gratefully acknowledges the support of The Whale Museum and comments from Paul Haverkamp, Geoffrey Wandesforde-Smith, and anonymous reviewers.