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Acknowledgments
The research presented in this article is part of the research project “Unterstützung bei der Evaluierung der wissenschaftlichen Leistungsfähigkeit des BfN durch den Wissenschaftsrat (UFOPLAN FKZ 3513810200).” We would like to thank the officials at the BfN who supported us by supplying relevant documents for analysis and participating in expert interviews.
Notes
1 CITES was signed at Washington, DC, on 3 March 1973, and entered into force on 1 July 1975. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, 3 March 1973, 993 U.N.T.S. 243, available at https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/disc/CITES-Convention-EN.pdf.
2 Gesetz über Naturschutz und Landschaftspflege – Bundesnaturschutzgesetz [Federal Nature Conservation Act – BNatSchG], 29 July 2009, last amended 7 August 2013, BGBl I at 3154 (Ger.), available at http://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bnatschg_2009/; Verordnung zum Schutz wild lebender Tier- und Pflanzenarten (Bundesartenschutzverordnung, BArtSchV) [Protection of Species Order], 16 February 2005, last amended 21 January 2013, BGBl I at 95 (Ger.), available at https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bartschv_2005/BJNR025810005.html.
3 See Matthew J. Smith et al., Assessing the Impacts of International Trade on CITES-listed Species: Current Practices and Opportunities for Scientific Research, 144 Biological Conservation 82, 82–91 (2011).
4 Gesetz über die Errichtung eines Bundesamtes für Naturschutz [Law on the Establishment of a Federal Agency for Nature Conservation], August 1993, BGBl I at 1458, vol. 6 (Ger.), available at https://www.gesetze-im-internet.de/bfnatschg/BJNR145810993.html.
5 See Michael Böcher & Max Krott, The RIU Model as an Analytical Framework for Scientific Knowledge Transfer: The Case of the “Decision Support System Forest and Climate Change,” 23 Biodiversity and Conservation 3641, 3641–3656 (2014).
6 See Michael Böcher & Max Krott, Umsetzung des Konzepts einer modernen Ressortforschung im Geschäftsbereich des BMU (Umweltbundesamt, Dessau-Roßlau, 2010).
7 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, supra note 5.
8 See Michael Böcher & Max Krott, Mit Wissen bewegen! Erfolgsfaktoren für Wissenstransfer in den Umweltwissenschaften (2014); Michael Böcher & Max Krott, Professionelle Integration als zentraler Baustein zur Qualitätssicherung von Politikberatung, 5 Zeitschrift für Politikberatung (ZPB) 13, 13–22 (2012); Michael Böcher & Max Krott, Institutionalisierung multi- und transdisziplinärer Umweltwissenschaften durch Ressortforschungseinrichtungen 59–80 (Klaus Fischer, Laitko Hubert, Heinrich Parthey eds., Jahrbuch Wissenschaftsforschung 2011); Michael Böcher, Wissenschaftsbasierte Politikberatung auf Abruf – Zur Rolle von Ressortforschungseinrichtungen für Ministerien am Beispiel der Politikberatung des Umweltbundesamtes, 2 dms – der moderne staat – Zeitschrift für Public Policy, Recht und Management 459, 459–480 (2012); Mirjana Stevanov et al., The Research, Integration and Utilization (RIU) Model as an Analytical Framework for the Professionalization of Departmental Research Organizations: Case Studies of Publicly Funded Forest Research Institutes in Serbia and Croatia, 37 Forest Pol‘y and Econ. 20, 20–28 (2013).
9 See Max Krott, Value and Risks of the Use of Analytical Theory in Science for Forest Policy, 16 Forest Pol'y and Econ. 35, 35–42 (2012); Norman Miller, Environmental Politics: Stakeholders, Interests, and Policymaking (2d ed. 2009); Peter Weingart, Paradox of Scientific Advising, in Expertise and Its Interfaces: The Tense Relationship of Science and Politics 53–89 (Gotthard Bechmann & Imre Hronszky eds., 2003).
10 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, Professionelle Integration als zentraler Baustein zur Qualitätssicherung von Politikberatung, supra note 8.
11 See Michael Pregernig & Michael Böcher, Normative and Analytical Perspectives on the Role of Science and Expertise in Environmental Governance, in Environmental Governance: The Challenge of Legitimacy and Effectiveness 199, 199–219 (Karl Hogl, Eva Kvarda, Ralf Nordbeck, & Michael Pregernig eds., 2012).
12 See Wissen – Beraten – Entscheiden: Form und Funktion wissenschaftlicher Politikberatung in Deutschland (Peter Weingart & Justus Lentsch eds., 2008).
13 See Michael Böcher & Max Krott, Science Makes the World go Round: Successful Scientific Knowledge Transfer for the Environment (in preparation, 2016).
14 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, supra note 6.
15 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, Professionelle Integration als zentraler Baustein zur Qualitätssicherung von Politikberatung, supra note 8.
16 See Reiner Grundmann, The Role of Expertise in Governance Processes, 11 Forest Pol'y and Econ. 398, 398–403 (2009).
17 See Mike Hulme, Why We Disagree about Climate Change: Understanding Controversy, Inaction and Opportunity (2009).
18 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, supra note 6.
19 See, e.g., id.
20 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, supra note 13.
21 See generally Wissenschaftsrat, Evaluation (2014), http://www.wissenschaftsrat.de/en/fields-of-activity/evaluation.html (explaining how Wissenschaftsrat carries out evaluations).
22 Ute Grimm & Karin Hornig, Bundesamt für Naturschutz (BfN), Forschung für den internationalen Artenschutzvollzug (PowerPoint presentation) (18 May 2015, Bonn).
23 Populations of Botswana, Namibia, and Zimbabwe (Appendix II, 18 September 1997) and South Africa (Appendix II, 19 July 2000); see CITES, Amendments to Appendices I and II of the Convention adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its 10th meeting in Harare, Zimbabwe, from 9 to 20 June 1997, https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/10/E10-amendments.pdf; CITES, Proposals for amendment of Appendices I and II, Results of the Twelfth meeting of the Conference of the Parties 3 to 15 November 2002, Santiago (Chile), https://www.cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/news/world/cop12_prop_results.pdf; CITES, Notification to the Parties No. 2007/022 (26 July 2007) Concerning Amendments to Appendices I and II of the Convention adopted by the Conference of the Parties at its 14th meeting, The Hague (Netherlands), 3–15 June 2007, https://cites.org/eng/notif/2007/E022.pdf; CITES press release (16 July 2008) Ivory sales get the go-ahead, available at https://www.cites.org/eng/news/pr/2008/080716_ivory.shtml; Katherine Lawson & Alex Vines, Global Impacts of the Illegal Wildlife Trade: The Costs of Crime, Insecurity, and Institutional Erosion 4 (2014).
24 See CITES, Implementation of the African Elephant Action Plan, SC61 Inf. 4, 61st Meeting of the Standing Committee, Geneva, 15–19 August 2011, https://www.cites.org/sites/default/files/common/com/sc/61/E61i-04.pdf; Elizabeth Culotta, Ivory identity crisis still unsolved, 267 Science 1264 (1995); Encyclopedia of Life, Loxodonta africana, http://eol.org/pages/289808/details (last visited 7 February 2016).
25 See Bernd Helbach, Bedroht, geschützt, jagdbar? Alle zwölf Stunden stirbt in Afrika ein Elefant – illegal. Auf dem Afrikanische-Elefanten-Gipfel in Gaborone, Botswana, und der 61. Generalversammlung des CIC in Mailand wurde über Gegenmaßnahmen beraten, 117 Wild und Hund 58, 58–63 (2014); Lazaro S. Nyalandu, The United Republic of Tanzania Ministry for Natural Resources and Tourism, Speech by the Minister for Natural Resources and Tourism for the Announcement of the Tanzania 2014 Elephant Census Results, Arusha, Tanzania (1 June 2015) (announcing elephant census data for 2014), available at http://www.lazaronyalandu.org/the-announcement-of-the-tanzania-2014-elephant-census-results-arusha-tanzania.
26 See Ashok Kumar & Vivek Menon, Ivory Tower Sustainability: An Examination of the Ivory Trade, in Gaining Ground: In Pursuit of Ecological Sustainability 129, 137 (David M. Lavigne & Sheryl Fink eds., 2006).
27 See Julie Ayling, What Sustains Wildlife Crime? Rhino Horn Trading and the Resilience of Criminal Networks, 16 J. of Int'l Wildlife Law & Pol'y 57, 58 (2013); Jeremy Haken, Transnational Crime in the Developing World, at V (2011) (analyzing “the scale, flow, profit distribution, and impact of 12 different types of illicit trade: drugs, humans, wildlife, counterfeit goods and currency, human organs, small arms, diamonds and colored gemstones, oil, timber, fish, art and cultural property, and gold”).
28 See Rolf D. Baldus, Geißel Wilderei: der illegale Abschuss von Elefant, Nashorn & Co. ist ungebremst. In manchen afrikanischen Ländern hat das bereits zur völligen Ausrottung von Wildarten geführt. Der Autor kennt die Problematik aus der Praxis: 10 Hintergründe – 10 Lösungen, 24 Jagen weltweit 60, 60–62 (2013).
29 See CITES, Resolution Conf. 10.10 (Rev. CoP16), Trade in Elephant Specimens (1997), https://www.cites.org/eng/res/10/10-10R16.php.
30 See CITES, Summary record of the 15th session of Committee I, CoP 14 Com. I Rep. 15 (Rev. 1), 14th Meeting of the Conference of the Parties, The Hague, 3–15 June 2007, https://cites.org/sites/default/files/eng/cop/14/rep/E14-Com-I-Rep-15.pdf; Commission Regulation (EU) No 1320/2014, amending Council Regulation (EC) No 338/97 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein n. 7 (1 December 2014); Ständiger Ausschuss CITES billigt einmaligen Elfenbeinexport nach China und Japan: neunjähriges Moratorium kann in Kraft treten, 10 Umwelt 544, 545 (2008).
31 See, e.g., Ständiger Ausschuss CITES billigt einmaligen Elfenbeinexport nach China und Japan: neunjähriges Moratorium kann in Kraft treten, supra note 30.
32 As a most recent example, Germany and Gabon are co-chairs of the UN Group of Friends on Poaching and Illicit Wildlife Trafficking, which was established in 2013 and played a key role in developing the draft resolution tackling illicit trafficking in wildlife, which was adopted by the UN General Assembly in 2015. G.A. Res. A/69/L.80, Tackling Illicit Trafficking in Wildlife (30 July 2015), http://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/69/314.
33 For example, analytical methods have been developed using DNA by Samuel K. Wasser and others. See, e.g., Samuel K. Wasser et al., Elephants, Ivory, and Trade, 327 Science 1331, 1332 (2010); Samuel K. Wasser et al., Combating the Illegal Trade in African Elephant Ivory with DNA Forensics, 22 Conservation Biology 1065, 1068–1071 (2008).
34 See, e.g., Matthias J. Brunnermeier et al., Dating of Ivory from 20th Century by Determination of 14C by the Direct Absorption Method, 70 Applied Radiation & Isotopes 1595 (2012); Matthias J. Brunnermeier et al., Distribution of 14C, 90Sr, and 228Th in an Elephant Tusk, 292 J. of Radioanalytical & Nuclear Chemistry 1285 (2012); Stefanie A.K. Schmied et al., Dating Ivory by Determination of 14C, 90Sr and 228/232Th, 221 Forensic Science Int'l 5 (2012); Stefan Ziegler et al., Identifying the Origin of Elephant Ivory With Isotopes, 24 TRAFFIC Bulletin 56 (2012); Stefanie A.K. Schmied et al., Age Assessment of Ivory by Analysis of 14C and 90Sr to Determine Whether There Is an Antique on Hand, 207 Forensic Science Int'l e1 (2011); Stefan Ziegler & Dorrit Jacob, Development of a Spatial Reference Database for Ivory, 23 TRAFFIC Bulletin 4 (2010).
35 See, e.g., CITES, Implementation of the African Elephant Action Plan: Research Project on the Determination of Age and Geographical Origin of African Elephant Ivory (2013), available at https://www.cites.org/eng/cop/16/inf/E-CoP16i-19.pdf.
36 CITES, Decision 16.78 to 16.83, Monitoring of Illegal Trade in Ivory and Other Elephant Specimens (Elephantidae spp.), https://cites.org/eng/dec/valid16/216.
37 INTERPOL also analyzed the samples using DNA analysis to compare the two methodologies.
38 See, e.g., U.N. Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), Guidelines on Methods and Procedures for Ivory Sampling and Laboratory Analysis (2014), https://www.unodc.org/documents/Wildlife/Guidelines_Ivory.pdf.
39 See, e.g., Böcher & Krott, supra note 5.