Ethics and Eating Fishes

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size

Notes

1 M.R. Clark et al., Seamounts, Deep-Sea Corals, and Fisheries: Vulnerability of Deep-sea Corals to Fishing on Seamounts Beyond Areas of National Jurisdiction 5, United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre (2006), available at http://www.unep.org/regionalseas/publications/reports/RSRS/pdfs/rsrs183.pdf; Alex Rogers, The Last Frontier Is Blue, 28 Oxford Today: U. Mag., no.1, at 38–41 (2015).

2 For more on diet and environment, see Lisa Kemmerer, Eating Earth: Environmental Ethics and Dietary Choice (2014).

3 Howard M. Johnson, U.S. Seafood Market in 2020 Strong Demand Likely Boon to Aquaculture, Global Aquaculture Advocate, October 2003, http://pdf.gaalliance.org/pdf/GAA-Johnson-Oct03.pdf.

4 Ransom A. Myers & Boris Worm, Rapid Worldwide Depletion of Predatory Fish Communities, 423 Nature 280 (2003).

5 RAFT Consortium, Seafood Traditions at Risk in North America, http://www.albc-usa.org/RAFT/images/Resources/SeafoodTraditions.pdf (last visited June 17, 2016).

6 Ransom A. Myers et al., Cascading Effects of the Loss of Apex Predatory Sharks from a Coastal Ocean, 315 Science 1846, 1848 (2007).

7 Id. at 1847.

8 Id. at 1846.

9 Rogers, supra note 1.

10 Debora MacKenzie, Deep-sea Fish Species Decimated in a Generation, NewScientist: Health, January 4, 2006, https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn8533-deep-sea-fish-species-decimated-in-a-generation/.

11 Id.

12 Jennifer A. Devine, Krista D. Baker, & Richard L. Haedrich, Deep-Sea Fishes Qualify as Endangered, 439 Nature 29 (2006).

13 A Look at the Biggest Challenges—and the Way Forward, Monterey Bay Aquarium (December 27, 2011), http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/issues/.

14 Id.

15 Salmon Recovery, NOAA Fisheries, http://www.westcoast.fisheries.noaa.gov/protected_species/salmon_steelhead/recovery_planning_and_implementation/ (last visited June 17, 2016).

16 Pacific Salmon (Oncorhynchus spp.), U.S. Fish & Wildlife Serv., http://www.fws.gov/species/species_accounts/bio_salm.html (last visited June 13, 2016).

17 David Lawlor, Preserving our Natural Heritage: The Fish of Earthjustice, In Brief, Winter 2010/2011, at 13.

18 Rogers, supra note 1, at 39.

19 Rough Going for the Orange Roughy, Smithsonian Nat'l. Museum of Natural Hist., http://ocean.si.edu/ocean-news/rough-going-orange-roughy (last visited June 13, 2016).

20 Janet Raloff, Empty Nets, 167 Science News 360 (2005).

21 Nils C. Stenseth & Tristan Rouyer, Ecology: Destabilized Fish Stocks, 452 Nature 825 (2008).

22 Louisiana Fisheries, Louisiana St. U., http://www.seagrantfish.lsu.edu/faqs/redsnapper/biology.htm (last visited June 13, 2016).

23 Id.

24 Stenseth & Rouyer, supra note 21, at 826.

25 Nat'l Marine Fisheries Serv., Status Review Report for Atlantic Bluefin Tuna (Thunnus thynnus) (2013), http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/stories/2011/05/docs/bft_srr_final.pdf.

26 Atlantic Bluefin Tuna, National Geographic, http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/fish/bluefin-tuna/ (last visited June 13, 2016).

27 Id.

28 Id.

29 Lawlor, supra note 17, at 12.

30 Atlantic Bluefin, supra note 26.

31 Brian R. MacKenzie, Henrik Mosegaard, & Andrew A. Rosenberg, Impending Collapse of Bluefin Tuna in the Northeast Atlantic and Mediterranean, 2 Conservation Letters 25 (2009).

32 Bluefin Tuna Opens 2013 with Record Auction Price at Tsukiji: 1.78 Million Dollars, MercoPress: South Atlantic News Agency, January 12, 2013, http://en.mercopress.com/2013/01/12/bluefin-tuna-opens-2013-with-record-auction-price-at-tsukiji-1.78-million-dollars.

33 Global Fisheries, SeaWeb: Leading Voices for a Healthy Ocean, http://www.seaweb.org/resources/briefings/fishery.php (last visited June 13, 2016).

34 Erik Stockstad, Global Loss of Biodiversity Harming Ocean Bounty, 314 Science 745 (2006).

35 Andrew J. Read, Phebe Drinker, & Simon Northridge, Bycatch of Marine Mammals in U.S. and Global Fisheries,” 20 Conservation Biology 163, 168 (2006).

36 Seabirds Needn't Die in Vain, 195 New Scientist 6 (2007); Long Line Fact Sheet, Sea Turtle Restoration Project (February 21, 2009), http://www.seaturtles.org/downloads/longline_factsheet.pdf.

37 Ivor Clucas, A Study of the Options for Utilization of Bycatch and Discards from Marine Capture Fisheries, Food & Agric. Org. of the United Nations, http://www.fao.org/docrep/w6602e/w6602e00.htm (last visited June 13, 2016).

38 Karl Blankenship, Scientists Suspect Decline of Herring if Result of Bycatch in Other Fisheries: Fish Managers Considering Stepped-Up Monitoring and Closing Areas to Trawlers, Bay J., July 1, 2010, http://www.bayjournal.com/article/scientists_suspect_decline_of_herring_is_result_of_bycatch_in_other_fisheri.

39 Researchers Say Deep Sea Fish Face Extinction, The Guardian, January 6, 2006 [hereinafter Researchers], http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/world/archives/2006/01/06/2003287687; MacKenzie supra note 10.

40 MacKenzie, supra note 10.

41 Researchers, supra note 39; MacKenzie, supra note 9.

42 Clucas, supra note 37.

43 Peter Singer & James Mason, The Way We Eat: Why Our Food Choices Matter, 126 (2006).

44 Committee on Sea Turtle Conservation, et al., Decline of the Sea Turtles: Causes and Prevention 74–116 (1990), http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=1536&page=74.

45 Clucas, supra note 37.

46 Rogers, supra note 1, at 41.

47 Herring Alliance, Bycatch and Monitoring, http://www.pewtrusts.org/∼/media/assets/2010/09/10/bycatch_monitor-ing.pdf (last visited June 10, 2016).

48 Under Pressure: Government Moves to Protect Herring, In Brief at 7 (Winter 2007–2008).

49 Myers, supra note 4, at 281.

50 Andrew J. Read, Bycatch of Marine Mammals in U.S. and Global Fisheries, 20 Conservation Biology 163, 163 (February 2006).

51 NOAA Fisheries, The Tuna-Dolphin Issue, https://swfsc.noaa.gov/textblock.aspx?Division=PRD&ParentMenuId=228&id=1408#Top (updated March 29, 2016).

52 Rex Dalton, Net Losses Pose Extinction Risk for Porpoise, 429 Nature 590 (2004); Gerardo Rodríguez-Quiroz et al., Fisheries and Biodiversity in the Upper Gulf of California, Mexico, in Oceanography 281, 291 (Marco Marcelli ed., 2012).

53 Paul Watson, Tora, Tora, Tora!, in Environmental Ethics: What Really Matters, What Really Works 639, 641 (2012).

54 Id.

55 Id.

56 Id. at 643.

57 Id.

58 Monterey Bay Aquarium, Longlining: Fishing Methods Fact Card, http://www.montereybayaquarium.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_Longlining&PurseSeiningFactCards.pdf (last accessed June 11, 2016).

59 Long Line Fact Sheet, Sea Turtle Restoration Network (March 2003), http://www.seaturtles.org/downloads/longline_factsheet.pdf.

60 Robert Ovetz, Pillaging the Pacific: Pelagic Longline Fishing Captures and Kills About 4.4 Million Sharks, Billfish, Seabirds, Sea Turtles, and Marine Mammals Each Year in the Pacific Ocean, Sea Turtle Restoration Project (2004).

61 Id.

62 J. W. Watson & D. W. Kerstetter, Palegic Longline Fishing Gear: A Brief History and Review of Search Efforts to Improve Selectivity, 40 Marine Technology Soc. J. 6, 9 (Fall 2006).

63 False Killer Whale (Pseudorca crassidens), Noaa Fisheries: Office of Protected Resources, http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/pr/species/mammals/cetaceans/falsekillerwhale.htm (last visited June 11, 2016).

64 Watson & Kerstetter, supra note 62.

65 Id.

66 Gulf Sea Turtles Get a Breather: Government Orders Review of Long-Line Fishing, In Brief 11, 11 (Summer 2009).

67 Id.

68 Peter Singer, Practical Ethics 3 (1979).

69 James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy 99 (8th ed. 2015).

70 Id. at 100, 113.

71 See, e.g., Jeremy Bentham, Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation (T. Payne ed.) (1789).

72 Id. ch. XVIII, sec. 1.

73 Singer, supra note 68, at 19 (emphasis added).

74 Rachels, supra note 69, at 129–30.

75 Id. at 25.

76 Id.

77 Id. at 130.

78 Deontological Ethics: 2.2 Patient-Centered Deontological Theories, Stanford Encyclopedia of Phil. (2012), http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-deontological/.

79 Tom Regan, Empty Cages: Facing the Challenge of Animal Rights 50 (2004) [hereinafter Regan, Empty Cages].

80 See Rachels, supra note 69a, at 135; see also Tom Regan, The Case for Animal Rights 82 (1983) [hereinafter Regan, Case for Animal Rights].

81 Id.

82 Harvey Black, Underwater Suffering: Do Fish Feel Pain?: A Study Suggests Fish Consciously Experience Discomfort, Sci. Am. (September 17, 2009), http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=underwater-suffering-do-fish-feel-pain.

83 Regan, Case for Animal Rights, supra note 80, at 190, 240; Regan, Empty Cages, supra note 79, at 59–60.

84 K.P. Chandroo, I.J.H. Duncan, & R.P Moccia, Can Fish Suffer?: Perspectives on Sentience, Pain, Fear and Stress, 86 Applied Animal Behav. Sci. 225–250 (2004).

85 Id.

86 Id.

87 Voices for Animals, The Problem with Fishing: Fish and Pain, Pittsburgh Indep. Media Center (July 27, 2005), http://pittsburgh.indymedia.org/news/2005/07/19545_comment.php.

88 Black, supra note 80, at 187.

89 Id.

90 Id.

91 Jonathan Balcombe, Pleasurable Kingdom 186–187 (2006).

92 Id. at 20–21.

93 Rodríguez-Quiroz et al., supra note 52.

94 Id.

95 Balcombe, supra note 91, at 188.

96 Id.

97 Dionys de Leeuw, Contemplating the Interests of Fish: The Angler's Challenge, 18 Envtl. Ethics 373, 378 (1996).

98 Balcombe, supra note 91, at 188.

99 Mark Brown, Fish Photographed Using Tools to Eat, Wired.com (November 24, 2013), http://www.wired.com/wiredscience/2011/07/fish-tool-use.

100 Jennifer Viegas, Video Shows Fish Using Tools, Seeker.com (September 29, 2011), http://www.seeker.com/video-shows-fish-using-tools-1765450892.html#news.discovery.com.

101 Keven N. Laland et al., Learning in Fishes: From Three-Second Memory to Culture, 4 Fish and Fisheries 199 (2003).

102 de Leeuw, supra note 97, at 325.

103 Id. at 378.

104 Id. at 325, 289.

105 Rosamond Naylor et al., Effect of Aquaculture on World Fish Supplies, 8 Issues in Ecology 1, 6 (2001).

106 Karen Dawn, Thanking the Monkey 158 (William Morrow ed., 2008); Daniel Pauly & Reg Watson, Counting the Last Fish, 289 Sci. Am. 42, 45 (2003).

107 Naylor et al., supra note 105, at 7.

108 Peruvian Anchoveta, GreenFacts: Facts on Health and the Environment, http://www.greenfacts.org/, glossary/pqrs/peruvian-anchoveta.htm (last visited April 28, 2016).

109 Naylor et al., supra note 105, at 7.

110 Id. at 6.

111 Id.

112 Id.

113 Id. at 7.

114 Andrew A. Rosenberg, Aquaculture: The Price of Lice, 451 Nature 23, 24 (2008).

115 Salmon Farming Threatens Wild Populations, 57 AWI Quarterly 18 (2008) (quoting Alexandra Morton, director of Salmon Coast Field Station).

116 Reddy et al., Effect of Processing Treatments on the White Spot Syndrome Virus DNA in Farmed Shrimps (Penaeusmonodon), 52 Letters in Applied Microbiology 393 (2011).

117 Naylor et al., supra note 105, at 8.

118 Marianne Cufone, Ocean Fish Farms and Public-Resource Privatization, 19(12) The American Prospect A17 (2008).

119 Mark Hawthorne, Planet in Peril, VegNews, March–April 2012, at 38.

120 Naylor et al., supra note 105, at 8.

121 David Perlman, Scientists Alarmed by Ocean Dead-Zone Growth, SFGate, August 15, 2008, http://www.sfgate.com/green/article/Scientists-alarmed-by-ocean-dead-zone-growth-3200041.php.

122 Henning Steinfeld et al., Livestock's Long Shadow: Environmental Issues and Options, Food and Agric. Org. of the United Nations 212 (2006).

123 Kemmerer, supra note 2, at 33–35.

124 Kimberly Warner et al., Oceana Study Reveals Seafood Fraud Nationwide, Oceana (February 2013), http://www.scribd.com/doc/128051836/National-Seafood-Fraud-Testing-Results-FINAL.

125 Id.

126 Id.

127 Id.

128 Id.

129 Brian Clark Howard, World's Largest Single Marine Reserve Created in Pacific, National Geographic (March 18, 2015), http://news.nationalgeographic.com/2015/03/150318-pitcairn-marine-reserve-protected-area-ocean-conservation/.

130 Welcome to the Chagos Conservation Trust, Chagos Conservation Trust, http://chagos-trust.org/ (last visited April 29, 2016).

131 Ben Harder, Cost of Protecting the Ocean, 165 Science News 414 (2004).