Predicting gambling behaviour and problems from implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies in regular gamblers

Abstract

Outcome expectancies are the positive or negative effects that individuals anticipate may occur from engaging in a given behaviour. Although explicit outcome expectancies have been found to play an important role in gambling, research has yet to assess the role of implicit outcome expectancies in gambling. In two studies, we investigated whether implicit and explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were independent predictors of gambling behaviour (i.e. amount of time spent and money risked gambling; Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). In both studies, implicit positive gambling outcome expectancies were assessed by having regular gamblers (N = 58 in Study 1; N = 96 in Study 2) complete a gambling outcome expectancy reaction time (RT) task. A self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies was used to assess participants' explicit positive gambling outcome expectancies. Both the RT task and self-report measure of positive gambling outcome expectancies significantly contributed unique as well as shared variance in the prediction of self-reported gambling behaviour (Study 1) and problem gambling severity (Study 2). Findings from the current research point to the importance of using both direct and indirect assessment modes when examining the role of outcome expectancies in gambling.

Keywords::

• gambling
• addictive behaviour
• problem gambling
• cognition
• addiction

Declaration of interests

Funding sources: This work was supported by a research grant from the Ontario Problem Gambling Research Centre awarded to Sherry H. Stewart & Sunghwan Yi, as well as an operating grant from the Manitoba Gambling Research Program (MGRP) of Manitoba Lotteries awarded to Sherry H. Stewart, Michael Ellery & Sunghwan Yi (Grant #410-2009-1043). However, the findings and conclusions of this paper are those solely of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of Manitoba Lotteries. Melissa J. Stewart was supported by doctoral scholarships from Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, Killam Trusts, and Gambling Awareness Nova Scotia.

Conflicts of interest: No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

^1. As part of the larger study (Stewart et al., 2014), participants were randomly assigned to one of two cue exposure conditions: a casino cue video condition (n = 29) or a control cue video condition (n = 29). Given that cue exposure did not moderate the raw effect of each measure on the outcomes of interest, nor did it moderate the unique effect of each measure on the outcomes of interest, we collapsed across cue conditions and only examined participants' post-cue RT scores and self-reported outcome expectancies when conducting the analyses.

^2. A square root transformation was performed (Tabachnick & Fidell, 2007) to reduce the positive skewness of the distribution of scores on the PGSI (Ferris & Wynne, 2001). As a comparison of the analyses conducted using the original and transformed data revealed no differences in results, the original, untransformed scores on this measure were retained.

^3. As part of the larger study (Stewart et al., under review), participants were randomly assigned to one of two cue exposure conditions: a gambling advertisement cue condition (n = 51) or a control advertisement condition (n = 45). Given that cue exposure did not moderate the raw effect of each measure on the outcomes of interest, nor did it moderate the unique effect of each measure on the outcomes of interest, we collapsed across cue conditions and only examined participants' post-cue RT scores and self-reported outcome expectancies when conducting the analyses.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Melissa J. Stewart

Melissa J. Stewart is currently completing her PhD in Clinical Psychology at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Her research interests include the role of implicit and explicit gambling-related cognitions, with a particular focus on the role of implicit and explicit outcome expectancies in gambling. They also include responsible gambling strategies aimed at reducing the risk of problematic slot machine gambling, as well as prevention and treatment initiatives for disordered gambling.

Sherry H. Stewart

Sherry H. Stewart is professor in the Departments of Psychology and Neuroscience, Psychiatry, and Community Health and Epidemiology at Dalhousie University in Halifax, Nova Scotia. Her research is focused on psychological factors (e.g. motives, personality, implicit cognitions) contributing to alcohol abuse, disordered gambling, and the co-morbidity of mental health and addictive disorders. She has published several clinical trials of novel approaches for the treatment and prevention of addictive disorders and co-occurring mental health problems.

Sunghwan Yi

Sunghwan Yi is an associate professor in the Department of Marketing & Consumer Studies at the University of Guelph. His research interests include the automatic determinants of addictive, impulsive and compulsive consumer behaviour (e.g. excessive buying, gambling), as well as affective motives of compulsive/excessive buying and gambling.

Michael Ellery

Michael Ellery is currently a clinical specialist with the Addictions Foundation of Manitoba. His research in the area of gambling has included examining electronic gambling behaviours, investigating psychometric properties of gambling measures and evaluating the effectiveness of prevention and treatment initiatives for gambling problems.